Returning to the content of the previous paragraph, we note once again that we receive most of the information discussed above through conversation. Clinical conversation is often more preferable than standardized.
In modern psychological literature (especially after the work of J. Piaget), the concepts of "clinical method", "clinical approach", "clinical conversation" are used in a much broader sense than "pathologically oriented". The clinical approach is aimed at a qualitative and holistic study of individual, individual cases. Clinical conversation, emphasizing qualitative analysis, suggests that the psychologist has an active and flexible attitude to what is happening, and not a neutral attitude, which is necessary when using test procedures. When conducting a clinical conversation, the change of instructions, their explanation and clarification are widely used, the refusal of time restrictions is practiced when including any tasks, the child usually receives feedback from a psychologist who encourages him, clarifies, helps, etc. The use of feedback in this case is an important way of obtaining psychological information. It is important to note that the general direction of the conversation, the wording of the questions always reflect the theoretical position of the psychologist.
Appendix 4 provides an example of key points that can be used for both clinical and standardized conversation.
Observation plays an equally important role, while the psychologist's only tool is his knowledge. To fix the results of monitoring the child's condition in the process of individual work, it is good to use the table developed by J. Schvantsara.
Manifestations of a child in a psychological study
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Personal Development Disorders
1. Clinic of personality disorders in the domestic
1.1. Violation of mediation and hierarchy of motives.
1.2. Violation of meaning.
1.3. Violation of controlled behavior.
2. Clinic of personality disorders in psychoanalytic
2.1. Introductory remarks.
2.2. Classification of personality disorders.
2.3. Paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personalities
2.4. Hysterical (hysterical), narcissistic, antiso
social and borderline personality disorders.
2.5. Subordinate (dependent), obsessive and passive-
aggressive personality disorder.
2.6. Psychotherapy and psychotherapeutic prognosis for
3. Tasks and methods of pathopsychological research
studying personal development a child who is characterized by deviations in behavior, the psychologist faces a number of problems. Firstly, the ude personality itself is a complex formation and there is no such method that can fully reveal the true essence of a person. Therefore, applying certain methods, we obtain information about partial personality manifestations, on the basis of which the psychologist compiles a holistic view of the child's personality. Secondly, if the child's behavior deviates from socially approved norms, this may be due to disorders in the development of the psyche, determined, in turn, by endogenous and exogenous factors. Thirdly, given that the process of formation of the personality of children is directed by adults, it is necessary to conduct a study of the personality of the child in the general context of the social situation of development.
In connection with the foregoing, the choice of methods for studying deviations in the personal development of a child seems to be more difficult than a similar task in working with an adult patient. [Maksimova N.Yu., Milyutina E.L., p.71].
The general principles of studying the characteristics of the emotional sphere in children play an important role in identifying the causes of a child's behavior and make it possible to determine his attitude to the world. It is desirable to know the following features of emotions: the prevailing emotional background, the presence of sharp fluctuations in emotions, the phenomena of fears, anxiety in general and school anxiety in particular, the existence of intrapersonal conflicts and compensation mechanisms, reactions in a state of frustration. [Maksimova N.Yu., Milyutina E.L., p.25].
Difficulties in establishing contact are noted in children with an increased level of anxiety, inhibition, and neurotic reactions. Avoidance of contact is observed in autistic children. The ease of contact, combined with the surface (and hence its inferiority), may be associated with intellectual underdevelopment.
A serious reason for a more in-depth examination of the child is the lack of his reaction to praise (approval). This means that the child either does not understand the meaning and meaning of approval, or is indifferent to the assessment of an adult. On the contrary, a sharp improvement in the performance of tasks after praise is characteristic of neurotic children, which is explained by a decrease in their emotional stress. Lack of response to remarks indicates either an intellectual decline (i.e. the child simply does not understand the meaning of the remark and therefore does not accept it as an instruction from an adult), or extreme spoilage, when the restriction and instructions are unusual for the child.
It is very informative to observe the child's reaction to difficulties and failure in activities. Normally, children themselves discover their mistakes and, having reacted to this in statements (“oh!” “Wrong”, “not like that”, “but how?”), they redo the task with concentration, trying to achieve the correct result and turning to an adult as necessary. .
If, faced with difficulties in completing the task, the child begins to chaotically sort through the options for solutions, but still strives to complete the task to the end, this indicates his neuroticism. Unnecessarily loud, foolish laughter or crying is noted in these cases in children with neurotic reactions, as well as in spoiled children.
Motor disinhibition, which manifests itself in response to failure, is noted in children with minimal brain dysfunction and more severe cerebral impairment. This is expressed in the fact that the child begins to manipulate objects quickly and inadequately, loses the purpose of actions and does not complete the task to the end. Active refusal to perform a task often manifests itself in the form of aggressive actions that destroy the experimental situation. This type of reaction occurs with organic excitability, deviations in the personal development of pathocharacterological features. Passive refusal to complete a task occurs in children with inert mental processes. if a child older than 3 years old constantly turns to an adult, all the time asking if he is acting correctly, this may be a sign of either infantilism or the result of upbringing by the type of overprotection.
Features of emotional-volitional regulation in preschoolers are well manifested in the game. Starting from the age of 3, children already take into account the functional properties of toys, use substitute actions, and can perform a certain role in the game. In the course of collective games, the possibility of mastering the rules of the game, purposefulness and activity, the child's desire for dominance or subordination is manifested. To purposefully identify emotional reactions to failure, games with a programmed win and loss are used. The creation of such standard conditions - the alternation of success and failure - allows us to determine the degree of tolerance of children to negative emotions. [Maksimova, Milyutina, pp. 48-50].
Despite the many methods, techniques, tests aimed at the study of personality, their generally accepted, clear classification has not yet been developed. The most successful is the classification proposed by V.M. Bleikher and L.F. Burlachuk (1986, p. 84):
1) observation and methods close to it (biography study, clinical conversation, etc.)
2) special experimental methods (simulation of certain types of activities, situations, some instrumental techniques, etc.)
3) personality questionnaires (methods based on self-assessment)
4) projective methods.
Based on this classification, it is necessary first of all to take into account the age of the child and the impact on him of the immediate social environment. Therefore, it is advisable to study not only the personality manifestations of the child, but an integral assessment of his experiences of his life situation, his worldview as a whole. Proceeding from this, it is necessary to consider the methods of studying personality, conditionally dividing them into two groups:
For children of preschool and primary school age, it is more appropriate to use the second group of methods, because they are more accessible and understandable to children.
In this work, we will consider the following methods:
"Self-portrait" is a projective technique for studying personality. Instructions are given - "On clean slate paper, draw yourself, busy with some kind of work. You can draw yourself alone, or with your family members, or with friends. Try to portray people in full - do not draw caricatures or a flat outline.
There is no generally accepted grading system; the results are processed qualitatively. [L.D. Stolyarenko, p.471].
The test "In the Far Far Away" is a projective method for studying personality. Designed to assess children's ability to experience emotions of anxiety and pleasure. Proposed by T. Fagula in 1994. The subject is presented with 9 drawings - scenes from cartoons and asked to arrange them and compose a story. the results are evaluated according to the subject's reaction to the test situations, the variability of the choice of pictures, the frequency of the selected scenes, which expresses feelings of anxiety or pleasure, and the order in which the scenes are placed.
Data on the validity of the test on a sample of 5-10-year-old children are reported. The data obtained from the test is used to differentiate between normal or aggressive, anxious or isolated children. A fairly high validity and reliability of the methodology is reported [L.F. Burlachuk - S.M. Morozov, p. 29].
Duss (Despert) fairy tales - a projective technique for studying personality. It was proposed by L. Duss in 1940. The technique is used to examine children at the age of departure. Children are invited to listen to 10 short stories and answer questions. Each of the plots touches on certain areas of their emotional conflicts. For example, “The parent birds and the little chick sleep in a nest located on a tree branch. A sudden gust of wind throws the nest to the ground. Awakened parent birds take off and land on different trees. What will a little chick do that has already learned to fly a little” (the theme of fear of possible separation from parents).
The interpretation of the data obtained is carried out from a psychoanalytic position and is aimed at searching for complexes (“weaning”, “fear of castration”, etc.). Validity and reliability data are debatable [L.F. Burlachuk - S.M. Morozov, p. 99].
Test-film by R. Zhili - a projective method of personality research. Published by R. Gil in 1959 and intended for examination of children.
The stimulus material consists of 69 standard pictures depicting children and adults, as well as test tasks aimed at identifying behavioral features in different life situations that are relevant to the child and affect his relationships with other people. The test tasks offer a choice of typical forms of behavior in some situations. The survey ends with a survey, during which the data of interest to the psychologist are specified. The test makes it possible to describe the system of personal relationships of the child, consisting of 2 groups of variables:
1) Indicators characterizing specifically the personal relationships of the child with other people: a) mother; b) father; c) both parents; d) brothers and sisters; e) grandparents; e) friend, girlfriend; g) teacher, educator.
2) Indicators characterizing the characteristics of the child himself: a) curiosity; b) the desire for dominance in the group; c) the desire to communicate with other children in large groups d) isolation from others, the desire for solitude.
In addition to the qualitative assessment of the results, all indicators receive their quantitative expression [L.F. Burlachuk - S.M. Morozov, p.102].
The "Completion of History" methodology is a group of projective methods for studying personality. The subject is asked to complete short stories - short stories. Since the 1930s, this technique has been widely used to carry out psychotherapeutic work with children. With the help of the methodology, the emotional relationship between parents and children, the areas of the most significant conflicts, the features of children's adaptation to the conditions of schooling, attitudes towards parents, etc. are studied.
Interpretation of test results is usually qualitative. There is no information on the validity and reliability of these methods [L.F. Burlachuk, S.M. Morozov, p.122].
The method of "Storytelling" is a group of projective methods for studying personality. For a long time (since the 1930s) it has been used in psychodiagnostic research, primarily to study the child's personality. The stories that children are asked to compose vary in the degree of structure from strictly structured tasks (for example, the Big Bad Wolf story, which was used in the studies of L. Despet and G. Potter) to a request to come up with any story.
The theoretical substantiation of the methodology is based on the premise that, given a relatively unstructured topic, the story told by the subjects allows obtaining personal data that is not available with direct questioning. These stories reflect information about the aspirations, needs, conflicts of the child. It is believed that the "free story" most fully reveals the problems and experiences of the child.
According to L. Despert and G. Potter (1936), recurring themes usually indicate a major problem or conflict. Anxiety, guilt, fulfillment of desires and aggressiveness are the main tendencies that appear in the stories of children.
When evaluating the results, only a qualitative analysis is carried out. There is no information about the reliability and validity of these methods, although quite often they indicate a satisfactory agreement between the obtained data and the results of other tests.
Columbius is a projective technique for studying personality. Designed to work with the subject aged 7 to 20 years. Developed by M. Lanzhiveld in 1976 as an alternative to the children's apperception test.
The test material consists of 24 pictures, 3 of which are in color and 21 in black and white; only 2 of them (No. 17, 19) are designed specifically for testing females, the rest can be used for all subjects. The numbering of the paintings does not determine the sequence of their presentation. The number and specific set vary depending on the age and objectives of the study. The task of the subject is to make up a story from the picture.
The following aspects are analyzed:
I. General categories: 1) affectivity - emotionality; 2) features of the material; 3) structure, form of presentation (a) logical, historical, anecdotal, sentimental, etc. (b) insufficient ordering of the material; 4) quality of presentation (clear / vague, sophisticated / simple).
II. Personal problems: 1) attitude to the present; 2) attitude towards oneself, towards others, towards the world of objects; 3) attitude towards the future.
The prognostic orientation of the technique is emphasized. With its help, it is proposed to study the relationship of the child in the family and with peers, the features of his development and maturation.
The Puppet Test is a projective technique for studying personality, developed by A. Voltman (1951), M. Gaworth (1957) and other psychologists. Previously, procedures similar to the puppet test were used by psychoanalytically oriented researchers as a therapeutic technique for children under the age of 10 (M. Rambert, 1938).
The stimulus material of the technique is represented by puppets, the number of which differs among different authors. The child is asked to act out various scenes with the puppets, such as rivalry with a brother, sister, or situations involving father, mother, and other relatives. Sometimes children are offered to put on a puppet show. Such an organization of research under the guidance of an experimenter-director brings the puppet test closer to psychodrama. The examination procedure is not standardized. There is no system for evaluating the data obtained, and an interpretation scheme has not been developed. The emphasis is on the intuition of the researcher. Data on the validity and reliability of the test are not available.
"Faces and Emotions" is a projective technique designed to diagnose self-esteem in children of preschool and primary school age. The technique was published by A. Jahez and N. Manish in 1990.
The child is offered 4 tasks:
1) Draw 6 characters that are most important to the child: mother, father, teacher, friend, acquaintance and family in general
2) Draw 6 situations that are most important in a child's life: home, stake, holidays, free time, math lesson, reading
3) Fill in 3 circles with images of 3 faces (one face in one circle) expressing joyful, sad and neutral emotions
4) Indicate which of the 3 faces with different emotions most closely matches each of the 12 drawings (tasks 1-2) as the most fully reflecting the emotions that the child usually experiences in this or that situation, in the presence of this or that person.
With the help of the technique, the sources of self-esteem in children are revealed: significant other people and significant situations.
The authors emphasize that the "Faces and Emotions" method has a high degree of projectivity. The child's drawing is his own interpretation of the concept of a specific significant other or a specific significant situation, in contrast to other methods in which the model is prepared in advance by an adult. The child does not need to explain the meaning of the test drawings: he “appropriates” the drawing in the process of drawing. For a child, the image of the mother on a sheet of paper represents his own mother. Unlike other drawing techniques, which provide for the image of a person in the "Faces and Emotions" technique, human figures in themselves are not the subject of analysis. Rather, they increase the content validity of the test.
The methodology is applicable: in cross-cultural studies when studying the characteristics of self-esteem in different age groups; when examining children who have difficulty in mastering reading and speech skills - in the learning process, as well as in psychoprophylaxis, psychotherapy and psychocorrection.
Luscher's "Color Choice" test is a projective technique for studying personality. Based on subjective preference for color stimuli. Published by M. Luscher in 1948
The stimulus material consists of standard multi-colored paper-cut squares with a side of 28 mm. The complete set consists of 73 squares of various colors and shades. Usually an incomplete set of 8 colored squares is used. The main colors are blue, green, red, yellow, and secondary colors are purple, brown, black and gray. A simplified examination procedure (for 8 mm flowers) is reduced to the simultaneous presentation of all colored squares on a white background to the subject with an offer to choose the one you like best. nice. The selected square is turned over and set aside, then the procedure is repeated. A series of squares is formed in which the colors are arranged according to their attractiveness to the subject. The first two colors are considered clearly preferred, the third and fourth - preferred, the fifth and sixth - neutral, and the seventh and eighth - causing antipathy, a negative attitude.
The psychological interpretation of the obtained series of subjective color preferences is based, firstly, on the assumption that each color has a certain symbolic meaning, for example: red - the desire for power, dominance, green - perseverance, perseverance. Secondly, it is believed that the range of color preferences reflects the individual characteristics of the subject. At the same time, the position occupied by a particular color has functional significance. For example, it is believed that the first two positions of the series determine the goals of the individual and the ways to achieve them, the last two - the suppressed needs, symbolized by these colors. The choice in the field of primary colors is associated with conscious tendencies, and among the additional ones, with the sphere of the unconscious. In the theory of personality developed by M. Luscher, there are two main psychological dimensions: activity - passivity, heteronomy - autonomy.
Validity and reliability data are mixed. Along with an individual examination, a group examination is allowed. The test is sensitive to the slightest changes in the current state, and can also be useful for studying personality traits.
The Peace Test is a projective technique for studying personality. The first version of the test was proposed by I.Lovenfeld (1939). The most significant contribution to the development of the Peace test, as a projective technique, was made by G. Bolgar and L. Fisher, who published an article in 1947 entitled "Projection of Personality in the Peace Test". earlier the test was used mainly in psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy. The test is intended for examination of both children and adults.
The stimulus material of the World test consists of 232 models of objects distributed in different proportions into 15 categories (houses, trees, wild and domestic animals, aircraft, etc.). The models are small in size, made of wood or metal and have a bright color. The subject, at his own discretion, creates from these objects what the authors called the “small world”. Time is not limited. The basis for interpretation is the consideration of items chosen first; the number of used items by category; the space occupied by the structure; forms of structures, as well as features that are manifested in the behavior of the subject. Based on the study of various clinical groups, the authors created a hypothetical "normal design" and identified deviations from it. The main approaches to the construction of the "world" were identified: practical, logical, social, vital and aesthetic. Their realism was evaluated. Comparison of interpretations with the biographical data of the subjects indicates a high validity of the test. It is noted that the Mir test makes it possible to successfully differentiate various clinical groups.
S.Buller and M.Munson (1956) proposed a variant of the World test, in which several pictures are pasted onto sheets of large format so that the subject can draw the objects he needs on them.
In Russia, there is experience in using the World test to study the personality of a child, as well as for the purposes of psychotherapy (R.A. Kharitonov, L.M. Khripkova, 1976).
"Draw a story" - a projective technique for studying personality. Proposed by R. Silver in 1987. Designed for the early detection of depression, in particular - latent depression.
Initially, the subject must choose two pictures from 14 and come up with a story based on them. Then you need to make a drawing based on a previously imagined story. Finally, it is proposed to write down history. The themes of drawing and history are evaluated on a 7-point scale (from "pronounced negative" to "pronounced positive"). Negative topics contain indications of "sadness", "sadness", "death", "helplessness", "future without hope for the best", etc. and are seen as signs of depression.
The technique is intended for group examination of children and adolescents, starting from the age of 5. The technique is reported to be highly reliable, with limited validity data.
The "Draw a person" test is a projective technique for studying personality. Developed by K. Mahover in 1948 on the basis of the F. Goodenough test, designed to determine the level of intellectual development of children and adolescents using a drawing of a man made by them).
The "Draw a person" test can be used to examine both adults and children, group examination is allowed.
The subject is offered to draw a person with a pencil on a blank sheet of paper. After completing the drawing, he is given the task of drawing a person of the opposite sex. The final stage of the survey is a survey. These questions concern age, education, marital status, habits, and so on.
When interpreting the data obtained, the author proceeds from the idea that the drawing is an expression of the "I" of the subject. Considerable attention is paid to the analysis of various details of the drawing, primarily the features of the image of the main parts of the body, which are often evaluated in accordance with psychoanalytic symbolism. The study of validity has led to conflicting results due to the speculative nature of the interpretations proposed by the author. There is evidence that overall subjective ratings are more valid and reliable than ratings for individual details of a drawing.
Non-existent animal - a projective technique for studying personality; proposed by M.Z.Drukarevich.
The subject is asked to come up with and draw a non-existent animal, as well as give it a previously non-existent name. The examination procedure is not standardized. There is no generally accepted rating system. The test "Non-existent animal" is aimed at diagnosing personality traits, sometimes its creative potential. Satisfactory validity is shown [G.A. Tsukerman, pp. 41-42].
The finger coloring test is a projective technique for studying personality. Described by R. Shaw in 1932, later developed by P. Napoli as a personal technique (1946, 1951).
The subject is offered a wet sheet of paper and a set of paints. The drawing is done with a finger that is dipped in paint. After completing the drawing, they are asked to tell what happened. It is recommended to compile a series of such "pictures" created by the same person over a relatively long period.
The interpretation is based on a couple of the following main indicators: features of motor reactions, preference for certain colors, formal and symbolic characteristics of the picture, statements of the subject. The test can be used for both individual and group examinations. Data on validity and reliability are not available.
Children's self-concept scale (Pearce-Harris). Questionnaire personal. Aimed at measuring self-awareness. Proposed by E. Pierce and D. Haris in 1964. Designed to examine subjects aged 8 to 16 years. The questionnaire includes 80 statements concerning the attitude to one's "I", as well as certain circumstances and situations associated with the manifestation of self-attitude. The wording of the items on the questionnaire is based on a collection of children's statements about what children generally like and dislike about themselves. Items are built in the form of statements that require either agreeing (“yes”) or disagreeing (“no”).
There is evidence of satisfactory reliability and validity.
Rosenzweig's "Pictorial Frustration" is a projective technique for studying personality. Proposed by S. Rosenzweig in 1945. Based on the theory of frustration developed by him. The stimulus material consists of 24 drawings depicting faces in a transitional type of frustration situation. The character on the left is using words to describe his own or another individual's frustration. Above the character depicted on the right, there is an empty square in which the subject must enter the first answer that comes to mind. There are no features and facial expressions of the characters in the drawings. The situations depicted in the figures are quite ordinary and can be divided into two groups: 1) situations of obstacles or “ego-blocking”. Here, some obstacle or character discourages, confuses, frustrates in any direct way the character on the right; 2) situations of accusation or "super-ego-blocked". In these situations, the character on the right is accused of something or brought to justice.
The evaluation of the responses received, in accordance with the theory of S. Rosenzweig, is carried out according to the direction of the reaction (aggression) and its type.
According to the direction of the reaction, they are divided into: a) extrapunctual - the reaction is directed at the living or inanimate environment, the external cause of frustration is condemned and its degree is emphasized, sometimes the solution of the situation is required from another person; b) intropunctual - the reaction is directed at oneself with the acceptance of guilt or responsibility for correcting the situation that has arisen; the frustrating situation is not subject to condemnation; c) impulsive - a frustrating situation is considered as something insignificant or inevitable, overcome over time; there is no blaming others or oneself. The letters E, I, M are used to designate these reactions.
In addition, there is a division according to the type of reaction, namely: a) obstructive-dominant (E", I", M") - obstacles that cause frustration are accentuated in every way, regardless of whether they are regarded as favorable, unfavorable or insignificant; b) self-protective (E, I, M) - activity in the form of censure of someone, denial or signs of one's own guilt, avoidance of reproach; aimed at protecting one's "I"; c) need-persistent (e, i, m) - a constant need find a constructive solution to the conflict situation in the form of either demanding help from others, or accepting the responsibility to resolve the situation, or confidence that time and the course of events will lead to its resolution.In addition to quantitative and qualitative assessments of the direction and type of reaction in frustrating situations, On the basis of standard answers, a “group conformity index” is calculated, which makes it possible to judge the degree of social adaptation of an individual.
Additional information about behavior in situations of frustration is provided by Rauchmeisch indices (1971), which make it possible to assess the specifics of frustration reactions by the ratio of the values of individual factors. These include:
Index of "direction of aggression" - E / I
Aggression Transformation Index - E/e
Problem Solving Index - i/e
In accordance with the theory of S. Rosenzweig, frustration occurs when the body encounters more or less significant obstacles on the way to satisfying any vital need. protection of the organism in frustrating situations is carried out at three levels: cellular, autonomous, cortical or psychological level, at which the selection of the corresponding types and orientation of personality reactions is carried out.
The Rosenzweig technique is intended primarily for diagnosing the characteristics of behavior in situations associated with the appearance of difficulties, obstacles that impede the achievement of the goal.
The methodology, being sufficiently structured, directed to a certain area of behavior and having a relatively objective evaluation procedure, is more accessible to statistical analysis than most projective methods. The reliability and validity of the method is quite high.
A variant has been developed for examining children aged 4 to 14 years. Perhaps a group survey.
The Rorschach test is a projective technique for studying personality. Created by G. Rorschach in 1921
The test stimulus material consists of 10 standard tables with black-and-white and color symmetrical amorphous (weakly structured) images (“Rorschach spots”).
The subject is asked to answer the question of what, in his opinion, each image looks like. A verbatim record is kept of all the statements of the subject, the time from the moment the table was presented to the beginning of the answer, the position in which the image is viewed, as well as any features of behavior are taken into account. The survey ends with a survey, which is carried out by the experimenter according to a certain scheme. Sometimes the procedure "definition of limits" is additionally applied, the essence of which is the direct "call" of the subject to certain reactions-answers.
Each answer is formalized using a specially designed symbol system for the following five counting categories:
3) form level
5) originality - popularity
These enumeration categories have elaborate classifications and interpretive characteristics. Usually "total estimates" are studied. The totality of all obtained relationships allows you to create a single and unique structure of interrelated personality traits.
The main theoretical assumption of G. Rorschach is that the activity of an individual is determined by both internal and external motives. Therefore, the author introduces the concepts of introversion and extraversion. The extratensive type is a type of personality that mainly determines its behavior by reasons that lie outside its “I”, and an introverted one builds its activity based on internal intentions inherent in its “I”. The ratio between the parameters of introversion and extraversion determines the "type of experience" - the most important indicator of the test. The type of experience indicates "how", not "what" the individual experiences, how he interacts with the environment.
In addition to establishing the general orientation of the personality (“type of experience”), the Rorschach test allows you to obtain diagnostic data on the degree of realism in the perception of reality, the emotional attitude to the world around, the tendency to worry, anxiety, inhibiting or stimulating the activity of the individual. The diagnostic indicators of the Rorschach test do not have a strictly unambiguous psychological significance. Unambiguity is achieved by direct contact with the subject, his in-depth study. The differential diagnostic value of the data obtained when using the test is the more definite, the larger the set of indicators related to a specific task is studied.
The validity and reliability of the test has been proven by numerous studies.
The Hand Test is a projective technique for studying personality. Published by B. Braiklin, Z. Piotrovsky and E. Wagner in 1961 and is intended to predict open aggressive behavior.
Stimulus material - standard 9 images of hands and one empty table, when shown, they are asked to imagine a hand and describe its imaginary actions. Images are presented in a certain sequence and position. The subject must answer the question about what, in his opinion, the action performed by the drawn hand. In addition to recording responses, the position in which the subject holds the table is recorded, as well as the time from the moment the stimulus is presented to the beginning of the response.
The evaluation of the data obtained is carried out according to the following 11 categories: 1) aggression 2) indication 3) fear 4) attachment 5) sociability 6 dependence 7) exhibitionism 8) mutilation 9) active impersonality 10) passive impersonality 11) description of the actions of the hand.
The answers related to the first two categories are considered by the authors as related to the willingness of the subject to the external manifestation of aggressiveness, unwillingness to adapt to the environment. The four subsequent categories of responses reflect a tendency to act to adapt to the social environment, the likelihood of aggressive behavior is negligible. The quantitative indicator of open aggressive behavior is calculated by subtracting the sum of "adaptive" responses from the sum of responses for the first two categories, i.e. sum ("aggression + instructions") - sum ("fear + attachment" + "communication + dependence"). Responses that fall into the categories of "exhibitionism" and mutilation" are not taken into account when assessing the likelihood of aggressive manifestations, since their given area of behavior is inconsistent. These answers can only clarify the motives of aggressive behavior.
In the theoretical substantiation of the test, its authors proceed from the position that the development of the functions of the hand is associated with the development of the brain. The importance of the hand in the perception of space and orientation in it is great. The hand is directly involved in external activity, from which we can draw conclusions about the trends in the activity of the subjects. There is evidence of high validity and reliability. [O.P. Elisev, p.].
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective technique for studying personality. Created by H. Morgan and G. Murray in 1935. Stimulus material - a standard set of 31 tables: 30 black-and-white pictures and 1 - an empty table on which the subject can imagine any picture. The images represent relatively vague situations that allow for ambiguous interpretations. At the same time, each of the drawings has a special stimulating power, provoking, for example, aggressive reactions or contributing to the manifestation of the subject's attitudes in the sphere of family relations. During the experiment, 20 pictures are presented in a certain sequence, selected from a standard set depending on gender and age. Typically, the examination is carried out in 2 stages of 10 paintings in 1 session with an interval between sessions of no more than 1 day. The subject is asked to come up with a short story about what led to the situation depicted in the picture, what is happening at the moment, what the characters think and feel, how this situation ends. The subject's stories are recorded verbatim, with pauses and intonations fixed. The time spent on the story for each picture is noted. The survey ends with a survey. The story analysis is structured as follows:
1) finding the hero with whom the subject identifies himself;
2) determination of the most important characteristics of the "hero" - his feelings, desires and "needs". The needs of the environment are identified. "Needs" and "pressures" are rated on a five-point scale depending on their intensity, duration, frequency, and their significance in the plot of the story.
3) a comparative assessment of the forces emanating from the hero and the forces emanating from the environment. The combination of these variables forms the "theme" or dynamic structure of the interaction between the individual and the environment. According to G. Murray, the content of "themes" is: a) what the subject actually does; b) what he aspires to; c) that which he is not aware of, manifesting itself in fantasies; d) what he is experiencing at the moment; e) how he sees the future. As a result, the researcher receives information about the main aspirations, needs of the subject, the impacts exerted on him, conflicts that arise in interaction with other people and ways to resolve them, etc.
A formal analysis of stories is also carried out, including the calculation of the duration of stories, their style features, etc. This aspect of the analysis can be useful for detecting pathological formations. The diagnostic value of TAT is based on the recognition in the human psyche of two strongly manifested tendencies:
1) the desire to interpret every multi-valued situation that the individual encounters in accordance with his past experience;
2) in any literary work, auto relies primarily on his personal experiences and consciously and unconsciously endows fictional characters with them.
Children's apperception test (CAT) is a projective method of personality research. Published by L. Belak and S. Bellak in 1949, intended for examination of children aged 3 to 10 years. The stimulus material consists of 10 standard black-and-white tables-drawings. The characters of the depicted situations are animals, which in most cases perform human actions. It is assumed that the process of projection in children is greatly facilitated when animals, and not people, act as characters [LD Stolyarenko, p. 366].
As methods for measuring emotional states in children of primary school age, projective drawing tests "Self-portrait" and "Non-existent animal" were chosen.
The most interesting and revealing are the drawings of seven-year-old boys - Andrey Volzheninov and Maxim Gaevsky. When performing the "Self-portrait" technique, Maxim was found to be demonstrative, intellectual claims, instability, lack of support and isolation from others. Andrei was found to have increased aggression, demonstrativeness, a sense of inadequacy, rebelliousness and suspicion.
When performing the “Non-existent animal” technique, Maxim showed signs of fear, fear, distrust, aggressiveness, and protection from others. Andrei manifests open aggression, egocentrism, interest in information and anxiety.
Thus, analyzing the drawings of children, emotional deviations are clearly visible, such as anxiety, aggression, demonstrativeness and the presence of fears.
Features of emotional disorders in patients of different nosological groups
In patients with neurosis painful emotional-affective reactions of irritation, negativism, fear, etc., as well as emotional states (fear, asthenia, low mood, etc.) are noted. In patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder, high sensitivity and anxiety are observed.
At patients with hysteria lability of emotions, impulsiveness.
At patients with neurasthenia- irritability, tiredness, fatigue, weakness. In all types of neuroses, there is a low frustration tolerance.
At patients with psychopathy there is a tendency to emotional-affective reactions of a pathological nature:
Emotionally aggressive outbursts in epileptoid-
noah, hyperthymic and hysteroid psychopathy;
Tendency towards low mood, melancholy, despair
nia, lethargy is observed with asthenic, psychas
nic, sensitive psychopathy;
In schizoid psychopaths, emotional dissociation
manifestations (“fragile, like glass, in relation to
themselves and stupid as a tree in relation to others").
With epilepsy there is a tendency to dysphoria. With temporal epilepsy - fear, anxiety, decreased mood, malice; less often - pleasant sensations in various organs, a feeling of "enlightenment".
At patients with organic lesions of the central nervous system emotional-affective reactions and states of different sign, intensity depending on the disease and psycho-traumatic situations are also noted. For example, explosiveness, irritability, "incontinence of emotions", tearfulness, euphoria, anxiety.
Patients with schizophrenia are distinguished by emotional dullness, loss of differentiation of emotional reactions, their inadequacy. Of the three types of emotions, emotional relationships suffer the most and become pathologically distorted.
Emotional manifestations are characterized by significant differences in the direction of emotions. in patients with TIR(from euphoria to deep depression).
In patients with depression there is a tendency to dysphoria.
Changes in the emotional sphere are characteristic and for somatic patients: with cardiovascular diseases (for example, with myocardial infarction - a gloomy color of the future; with peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum - increased anxiety, excitability, mood swings, etc.)
To study emotions, the Luscher test, TAT, is usually used. The level of anxiety is examined using the scales of Taylor, Spielberger, and others. It is important to pay attention to the emotional manifestations of the subjects - the technique of Gue de Super-ville-Balin. It is possible for a psychologist to create artificial difficulties (for example, lack of time, an increase in the complexity of a task, etc.) in order to actualize (provoke) emotional reactions during testing and when performing tasks.
Normally, the subject retains the impulse to activity and the desire to complete the task. In pathology, various reactions are possible: affective outbursts, negativism, refusal to continue activities, pronounced vegetovascular reactions (tremor, redness of the face, increased breathing), increased muscle tension, etc.
Emotions are a special class of subjective psychological states, reflecting in the form of direct experiences, sensations of pleasant or unpleasant, a person's attitude to the world and people, the process and results of his practical activity. The class of emotions includes moods, feelings, affects, passions, stresses. These are the so-called "pure" emotions. They are included in all mental processes and human states. Any manifestations of his activity are accompanied by emotional experiences.
In humans, the main function of emotions is that thanks to emotions we better understand each other, we can, without using speech, judge each other's states and better tune in to joint activities and communication. The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common form of emotional experiences among living beings is the pleasure derived from the satisfaction of organic needs, and the displeasure associated with the inability to do this when the corresponding need is exacerbated. All behavior is associated with emotions, since it is aimed at satisfying a need. Emotions and feelings are personal formations. They characterize a person socio-psychologically. Emphasizing the actual personal significance of emotional processes, V.K. Vilyunas writes: "An emotional event can cause the formation of new emotional relationships to various circumstances ... Everything that is known by the subject as the cause of pleasure or displeasure becomes the subject of love-hate."
Emotions are a direct reflection, an experience of existing relationships, and not their reflection. Emotions are able to anticipate situations and events that have not yet actually occurred, and arise in connection with ideas about previously experienced or imagined situations.
Feelings are complex, culturally conditioned experiences of a person, which reflect his stable relationship to certain objects, processes of the external and internal world. Feelings, on the other hand, are of an objective nature, associated with a representation or idea about some object. Another feature of the senses is that they are improved and, developing, form a number of levels, ranging from direct feelings to the highest feelings related to spiritual values and ideals. Feelings are historical in nature, flow for a long time. They are different for different peoples and can be expressed differently in different historical epochs among people belonging to the same nations and cultures. The complexity of the structure of feelings is manifested in ambivalence, that is, in the duality of heterogeneous emotional states that form a single complex.
Psychological methods for studying the emotional sphere of a person are mainly based on questionnaires and reveal the emotional characteristics of a person (the emotions prevailing in his life, the dominant means of their expression and emotional stability). V. V. Boyko, Methodology "Tendency to constant low mood (dysthymia)". V. A. Doskin, The SAN Method (well-being, activity, mood), consists of 30 bipolar scales, which are grouped into three categories: well-being, activity and mood. E. Beck Depression Scale. V. V. Boyko, Methodology "Diagnosis of the level of emotional burnout."
Depending on the emotional state of a person, specific changes in the color sensitivity of the eye occur. According to E.T. Dorofeeva and M.E. Brazman each emotional state corresponds to a certain change in the sensitivity of the eye to the three primary colors of the spectrum: red, green and blue. For example, in a situation of fear, a decrease in the choice of the red-violet part of the spectrum and an increase in the choice of the green-blue part of the spectrum were revealed. Diagnostic value is the Luscher test.
The difficulty of studying emotions is due to the fact that in many cases they have to be artificially evoked in the laboratory, modeled. Recently, however, one of the ways to study naturally occurring emotions in computer games has been outlined. So, the study by S. Kaiser, 1994, was aimed at obtaining facial expression patterns corresponding to the emotions of happiness, satisfaction, pride, disappointment, fear, anger, sadness, etc. The game was accompanied by video recording of facial expression and fixation of motor, electrophysiological, speech manifestations of emotions .
In many cases, the causes of emotional disorders are various organic and mental diseases, which will be discussed below. There are, however, reasons that concern entire sections of society and even the nation. Such reasons, as noted by A.B. Kholmogorova and N.G. Garanyan, are specific values and attitudes encouraged in society and which create a psychological predisposition to emotional disorders, including the experience of negative emotions and depressive and anxiety states. For example, a ban on the fear of men, and for women - on anger (the image of a soft woman).
Among the violations of the emotional sphere, anxiety, fears, aggression, increased emotional exhaustion, communication difficulties, depression, distress, affective irritability, weakness and exhaustion can be distinguished. With a number of pathologies (schizophrenia, epilepsy, some psychopathy), emotional reactions become inadequate to the situation in which the person finds himself. In these cases, autism, emotional paradoxicality, parathymia, paramimia, emotional duality (ambivalence), emotional automatisms, and echomymia can be observed.
Development and correction of the emotional sphere of a person:
On the one hand, elementary emotions, acting as subjective manifestations of organic states, change little. It is no coincidence that emotionality is considered to be one of the innate and vitally stable personal characteristics of a person. But already in relation to affects, and even more so feelings, we can say that these emotions develop. A person, moreover, is able to restrain the natural manifestations of affects and, therefore, is quite teachable in this respect too. An affect, for example, can be suppressed by a conscious effort of the will, its energy can be switched to another, more useful thing.
The improvement of higher emotions and feelings means the personal development of their owner. This development can go in several directions. Firstly, in the direction associated with the inclusion of new objects, objects, events, people into the sphere of human emotional experiences. Secondly, along the line of increasing the level of conscious, volitional control and control of one's feelings by a person. Thirdly, in the direction of gradual inclusion in the moral regulation of higher values and norms: conscience, decency, duty, responsibility, etc.
At the level of the emotional sphere, the psychologist must help the client feel his own value; become more free to express their own positive and negative emotions; learn to more accurately verbalize their emotional states; reveal their problems and corresponding feelings; feel the inadequacy of some of their emotional reactions; modify the ways of experiencing, emotional response, perception of their relationship with others.
In the behavioral sphere, the psycho-corrective process is aimed at acquiring the skills of more sincere and free communication with others; overcoming inadequate actions; development of forms of behavior associated with support, mutual assistance, mutual understanding, cooperation, independence; development of adequate forms of behavior and response based on achievements in the cognitive and emotional spheres.
Art therapy techniques used in correctional work perform both therapeutic and diagnostic functions. Drawing and modeling provide an opportunity to express aggressive feelings in a socially acceptable manner, they are safe ways to relieve tension. The approach of emotive-rational therapy is effective when, together with the client, the psychologist finds out what are the causes of internal discomfort, how he can help eliminate them, while relying on the emotional experiences that arise in the client during the conversation.
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
1. The emotional sphere of the personality of modern youth………………6
1.1. The role of emotions in human life…………………………………………6
1.2. Features of the formation of the emotional sphere in students…………………………………………………………………….11
1.3. The process of formation of the emotional sphere…………………… 17
2. The level of formation of the emotional sphere of modern youth…………………………………………………………………….22
2.1. Brief description of the research base…………………….22
2.2. Methods for studying the emotional sphere…………………..23
2.3. Analysis of the results obtained…………………………………25
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….29
References……………………………………………………………31
Appendix 1……………………………………………………………………33
Annex 2……………………………………………………………………43
Introduction
Interest in the study of emotional processes has not weakened throughout the existence of psychology. Since the time of Plato, the entire mental life of a person has been divided into three relatively independent entities: mind, will and feelings, or emotions. The mind and will to some extent obey us, but emotions always arise and act against our desire. The ability to manage emotions most often means the ability to hide them. A person may not show his emotions, but they do not weaken from this, but more often become even more painful or take a defensive form of aggression. Managing emotions is simply necessary, but in order to manage them, you need to know as much as possible about them. Often the cause of difficulties in emotional expression is a person's lack of awareness of their own feelings and emotions. The inability to express emotions prevents a person from behaving constructively in relations with others, hinders mutual understanding.
Throughout the centuries-old history of research, emotions have received the closest attention from scientists - philosophers (R. Valette, I.A. Vasiliev, L.S. Vygotsky, I. Kant, S.L. Rubinstein, A. Einstein, etc.), teachers and psychologists (L.I. Bozhovich, V.K. Vilyunas, V. Wundt, B.I. Dodonov, K. Levin, A.N. Leontiev, A. Maslow, M. Polanyi, P.V. Simonov, P.M. Yakobson and others). This phenomenon was assigned one of the central roles among the forces that determine the inner life and actions of a person.
The relevance of the study is due to a number of objective and subjective factors, complex social and economic transformations taking place in modern society. It is obvious that at the present time there has been a trend towards a rational attitude towards life, as well as a negative attitude towards emotions as a phenomenon of a person’s inner life. All this is reflected in the image of a modern "successful" person - a person devoid of emotions.
At the same time, modern society does not take into account the fact that the ban on emotions does not go unnoticed. As a result, difficulties arise in the psychological processing of emotional states, and the growth of the physiological component in the form of pain and discomfort of various localization. Ultimately, underestimation of the importance and effectiveness of the emotional side of life leads to the loss of mental hygiene skills of emotional life. Moreover, the culture of the emotional life of a modern person - the ability to express oneself with words, colors, movement - is little realized as a special task in modern education. But only interpersonal communication is able to structure the emotional world, promote its development and the skills of self-understanding and self-expression.
To date, the emotional sphere has been deeply, comprehensively studied and presented in the works of both foreign and domestic psychologists (G.M. Breslav, V.K. Vilyunas, V. Witt, B.I. Dodonov, L.Ya.
Dorfman, A.C. Zaporozhets, K. Izard, A.N. Leontiev, A.E. Olshannikova, A.I. Paley, L.A. Rabinovich, Ya. Reikovsky, S.L. Rubinstein, O.K. Tikhomirov, P. Fress, P.M. Jacobson and others).
The problem of emotions in modern general psychology has been developed much less than other areas of psychological knowledge. Moreover, it can be considered that there is currently a crisis in the psychology of emotions. There are much more unresolved issues in the psychology of emotions than developed, resolved ones.
The purpose of this work is to explore the emotional sphere of the personality of modern youth.
The object of research is the emotional sphere of personality.
The subject of the research is the emotions of modern youth.
Hypothesis - the emotional sphere of girls is characterized by the largest emotional range and a greater degree of severity of the range compared to the emotional sphere of boys
In accordance with the specified goal, subject and hypothesis, the following main objectives of the study were identified:
1. Analysis of theoretical literature on the research problem;
2. Consider the role of emotions in human life;
3. Consider the features of the formation of the emotional sphere;
4. Experimentally to study the level of formation of the emotional sphere of modern youth.
The methodological basis of our work was psychological theories explaining the nature of the phenomenon under study (C. Darwin, W. James, K. Izard, K. Lange, A.N. Luk, P.V. Simonov, L. Festinger, S. Shechter, etc.),
1. The emotional sphere of the personality of modern youth
1.1. The role of emotions in human life
Emotional-volitional processes are mental phenomena that form the general functional state of the human psyche and control the cognitive and other processes that take place in it. They include the emotions, feelings and will of a person. Each of them has an independent physiological basis and in its own way affects mental activity in general.
Emotions act as an internal language, as a system of signals through which the subject learns about the needful significance of what is happening. The peculiarity of emotions is that they directly reflect the relationship between motives and the implementation of activities that correspond to these motives. Emotions in human activity perform the function of evaluating its course and results. They organize activity by stimulating and directing it.
It is noted that various objects and phenomena of the objective world affect the conscious sphere of a person in different ways - some please, others upset, others leave him indifferent. This is the result of a conscious response to them by the psyche (emotions and feelings). As a result, emotions (lat. emoveo - shock, wave) is understood as a holistic subjective reaction of the human psyche to the impact of external or internal stimuli, manifested in the form of specific experiences (pleasure or displeasure, joy or sorrow, confidence or fear, etc.). Accompanying almost any manifestation of the organism's vital activity, they reflect the significance (meaning) of phenomena or situations and serve as one of the main mechanisms for the internal regulation of mental (primarily cognitive) activity and behavior aimed at meeting the actual material or spiritual needs of a person.
The consistent development of emotions in society was determined by the need to direct them to new socially significant phenomena, which led to the formation of the highest form of their manifestation - feelings, which are a person's stable emotional attitude to the phenomena of objective reality, manifested in spiritually conditioned experiences.
Consequently, feelings meet the highest social needs and express a person's attitude to social phenomena, other people, himself, etc. At the same time, they are distinguished by stability, independence from the state of the body and the visually perceived situation. At the same time, the formed feelings become the main determinants of a person's emotional life, on which the emergence and content of situational emotions depend.
The simplest form of manifestation of emotions is the emotional background, which is innate hedonic (Greek hedone - pleasure) experiences that accompany individual vital sensations (eg, taste, temperature, pain, etc.). Already at this level they differentiate into two polar species (classes). Positive (sthenic) emotions arise as a result of a person's awareness of the usefulness of external or internal influences on the body and encourage him to achieve or maintain them. At the same time, negative (asthenic) emotions stimulate activity aimed at avoiding unwanted or dangerous influences, but at the same time, to some extent, enslaving the functioning of the psyche as a whole.
The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common form of emotional experiences among living beings is the pleasure derived from the satisfaction of organic needs, and the displeasure associated with the inability to do this when the corresponding need is exacerbated. The close connection that exists between emotions and the activity of the body is evidenced by the fact that any emotional state is accompanied by many physiological changes in the body. Attempts to connect these changes with specific emotions have been made repeatedly and were aimed at proving that the complexes of organic changes that accompany various subjectively experienced emotional states are different. However, it was not possible to clearly establish which of the subjectively given to us as unequal emotional experiences are accompanied by which organic changes, and failed.
This circumstance is essential for understanding the vital role of emotions. It says that our subjective experiences are not a direct reflection of our own organic processes. The peculiarities of the emotional states we experience are probably associated not so much with the organic changes that accompany them, but with the sensations that arise during this. Nevertheless, there is still a certain relationship between the specifics of emotional sensations and organic reactions. It is expressed in the form of the following connection, which has received experimental confirmation: the closer to the central nervous system is the source of organic changes associated with emotions, and the fewer sensitive nerve endings in it, the weaker the resulting subjective emotional experience. In addition, an artificial decrease in organic sensitivity leads to a weakening of the strength of emotional experiences.
In extreme conditions, when the subject is aware of the impossibility of coping with the situation, affects develop - a special kind of emotion that is very powerful and causes violent mental (fear, rage, etc.) and vegetative (rapid heartbeat, increased sweating, trembling in the body, etc.) changes. In the same situation, emotions can transfer the psyche into a stressful state, in which emotional excitations from the centers of the brain through the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands begin to spread to peripheral, especially involuntary, processes. As a result, there is a change in the functions of various internal organs, which can cause the development of neuroses, coronary heart disease, stomach ulcers, etc.
The main characteristics of emotions are their strength, the duration of the flow, the depth of impact on the body and the speed of occurrence. Depending on their size and combination, the corresponding emotional states are distinguished, which represent a certain temporary level of the integral functioning of the human psyche. For example, mood is considered as a weakly expressed emotional state, characterized by a significant duration and some ambiguity, poor awareness of the causes and factors that cause them. At the same time, passion is a long-term, effective and deep emotional state that arose on the basis of the subject's awareness of the need to achieve a specific goal of activity.
In practical psychology, a number of emotional states are also distinguished. In most cases, they are combined according to two characteristic features of the impact on the body - the activation or enslavement of its activity. The first group includes sthenic emotional states, which include cheerfulness, activity, joy, satisfaction, pleasure, etc., while the second group includes passivity, apathy, fear, fear, panic, etc.
P.K. Anokhin once pointed out the important mobilization, integrative-protective role of emotions. He wrote: “Producing almost instantaneous integration (combining into a single whole) of all functions of the body, emotions in themselves and in the first place can be an absolute signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body, often even before the localization of effects and the specific mechanism of response are determined. organism".
Thanks to the emotion that has arisen in time, the body has the opportunity to extremely profitably adapt to the surrounding conditions. He is able to quickly and quickly respond to external influences without having yet determined its type, form, and other particular specific parameters.
1.2. Features of the formation of the emotional sphere in students
The logical outcome of the youthful period of personality development is the achievement by the personality of a state of a holistic transtemporal identity in the understanding of his own image of "I". an important condition for the further successful social and professional integration of boys and girls in adulthood.
Therefore, in order for a person to achieve the status of professional maturity, it is necessary that the components of a holistic identity in the form of internal unity of the emotional-evaluative and cognitive aspects of the image of "I" be included in the system of subjective-psychological regulators of successful professional activity.
According to studies, the violation of the internal unity of the image of "I" should be understood as a mismatch of transtemporal attitudes of the individual in relation to himself in the professional and social spheres, his emotional and evaluative attitudes towards himself and ideas about himself in life and professional terms in the present and in the future.
Despite the fact that the emotional-evaluative component is the leading element of the structure of the stereotype, nevertheless, the existing personified image of one's professional future, that is, the professional stereotype of the personality in the form of positively oriented relations and ideas of the subject about his future professional realization, is not yet a guarantor of his successful real labor integration. This is explained by the fact that the formation of a professional stereotype is based on the presence of an already formed specific need of the individual as a subject of activity.
Occupying a certain social position, a person manifests himself, his individual mental qualities in interaction with others in a peculiar way. It is thanks to their mental qualities that each person should differ from any other in his thoughts, actions, actions, attitudes, views, etc.
However, the presence of people in a social environment somewhat levels them, does not contribute to individual development due to such factors as the unity of social (moral, legal and other) requirements, the stereotype of influences, etc. The erasure of individual manifestations of the psyche in education is especially clearly visible when the educational process is built according to unified curricula, when a traditional approach to organizing classes is used, which is far from a developmental focus, when there is no place for an individual approach to students, when teachers do not have information about the individual level of development of the mental spheres of each student, etc.
All this allows, on the one hand, to note the need to pay special attention to the individuality of the student as one of the most important goals of higher education. On the other hand, it should be recognized that in the modern practice of universities there has not yet been a trend, a view on reforming the content and process of professional training from the point of view of the formation of the individuality of a future specialist.
The main meaningful characteristic of emotions and feelings in adolescence is the future. Emotions associated with the expectation of the future, "which should bring happiness" dominate.
The emotional sphere of youth is characterized by:
1) the variety of feelings experienced, especially moral and socio-political;
2) greater than in adolescents, the stability of emotions and feelings;
3) the ability to empathize, that is, the ability to respond to the feelings of others, people close to them;
4) the development of aesthetic feelings, the ability to notice the beautiful in the surrounding reality.
Aesthetic susceptibility to soft, gentle, calm lyrical objects develops. This, in turn, helps young men and women to get rid of vulgar habits, unattractive manners, promotes the development of sensitivity, responsiveness, gentleness, restraint. Aesthetic feelings in young people are more complex than in adolescents. But, on the other hand, they can lead to "originality", immature and incorrect aesthetic ideas;
5) greater stability and depth of friendship; friends are chosen based on common interests and activities, equality of relations, devotion and obligations; friendships are mostly interrupted by betrayal;
6) the appearance of a feeling of love; youthful love, as a rule, is pure, direct, rich in various experiences, has a shade of tenderness, dreaminess, lyricism and sincerity.
In most cases, the emerging feeling of first love causes boys and girls to strive to overcome their shortcomings, develop positive personality traits, develop physically in order to attract the attention of the object of their feelings; love brings up noble feelings and aspirations.
This provision is temporary, but it is characterized by certain features, which include, for example, the following: participation in the educational process, the fulfillment of the necessary minimum of educational work, etc.
Like every young person, a student is not alien to fun, cheerful mood, optimism during training sessions. Students may laugh at their own occasions or respond appropriately to relevant situations during class. All these phenomena are a healthy reaction, the only problem is how to teach a student not to interfere with others with his fun or use it to cheer up his interlocutors.
A sore point for the university education system is the question of the negative states of students. It has already been said above that the expectation of failure is accompanied by such mental conditions as anxiety, stress, depression, excitement, anxiety, and shyness.
Studies by scientists in Ireland have shown that out of 10 Irish students, six people suffer from shyness. In the USA, Japan, Germany, where similar studies were conducted, students are much more self-confident. According to psychologists, shyness, excitement, negative experiences, accompanied by external indicators (redness, looking away from the interlocutor, trembling of the voice or hands, etc.) are not so harmless, especially for the future teacher.
The importance of the ability to manage one's emotional states can hardly be overestimated for any person, any age, any profession. Below are some ways to develop these skills. Here we give a description of the experiment that showed the importance of humor in the manifestation of the emotional sphere.
American scientists from the University of New York divided the students (before the exam) into three groups: the first included the most worried students, the second - with less signs of excitement, the third - not afraid of the exam. The students of the first group received exam tickets, in which all the questions were composed in a humorous form. The second group was offered tickets, where only half of the questions were composed with humor, and the third group received questions formulated in the usual dry theoretical language. As a result, almost all students of the first and second groups successfully passed the exam, while most of the students of the third group "failed". Scientists have concluded that humor is a medicine that successfully copes with negative emotional states. At the same time, it is known that modern ways of developing the emotional sphere include humor only as one of the possible components in the system of means.
It is known that, generated by activity, emotions not only become its integral component, but also begin to actively perform the functions of its regulation. Reflecting the relationship between the motivational-need side of activity and real achievements and human capabilities, emotional processes play an important role in student learning. Negative emotions, combined with the uncertainty of motivation, reduce the degree of formation of self-regulation mechanisms, increase maladjustment, and sometimes even lead to the so-called failure of adaptation.
According to surveys of junior and senior students, their mental states are distinguished by the presence of arousal in first-year students, in contrast to senior students. Students with an overall high level of negative emotional experiences, as a rule, have a low (below the norm) level of motivation to achieve success in educational activities, which in itself is a signal of trouble and the presence of a negative emotional background - the expectation of failure.
Since mental states affect the coordinated activity of mental processes (perception, attention, thinking, memory), positive adaptive changes in senior years and, accordingly, the increasing influence of positive motivating experiences lead to an increase in the overall performance of undergraduate students, in turn supporting the expectation of success in learning.
The formation of new educational goals that meet the requirements of training underlies the transition of educational motivation from the level of "known" to the level of really acting, and the achievement of certain results leads to a restructuring of attitudes towards the future profession. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the level of motivation for educational activity among senior students is significantly higher than among first-year students. The need for activity is most pronounced among representatives of young students, manifested in a kind of emotional experience, when a person experiences joyful excitement, excitement, if the work is going well, when he sees that he is achieving successful results. The presented data indicate that it is the mental states that are the leading component of the restructuring of the mental activity of students, determining the direction and nature of adaptive changes, as well as the formation of their individuality.
Thus, the emotional sphere of students is characterized by the following features:
The process of forming the emotional sphere of a student is determined by the position in society, the duties and functions of a person who is in a higher educational institution.
1.3. The process of formation of the emotional sphere
It is believed that the physiological basis of emotions is the processes occurring in the brain and the body as a whole, as a result of the interaction of cortical-subcortical complexes of excitations, formed on the basis of hereditary and acquired experience. Brain structures of various levels are involved in the formation of emotions, which, in interaction with the reticular formation of the brain stem, constitute their central nervous substrate. Consequently, any damage to the brain leads to a violation of a person's ability to adequately evaluate external or internal stimuli.
Emotions, as a process of holistic interaction of various mental and physiological structures of the human body, have a characteristic external manifestation in motor and sound reactions, facial expressions, gestures, respiratory rate, activity of the stomach, intestines, endocrine glands, the state of blood vessels, etc. At the same time, some reactions can be arbitrarily controlled by a person (for example, respiratory rate), while others (blood pressure) are not subject to such control under normal conditions.
The development of leading emotional experiences is the central process of the formation of the emotional sphere of reflection, which continues throughout ontogenesis. As a result of this process - which consists in a specific fixed "switching" of the leading experience from the "key" property of the object of need to its integral image - a system of stable emotional relations to objects of direct vital significance arises.
In contrast to the development of leading experiences, which introduces stable changes into the emotional sphere of reflection, the experiences that arise in the derivative emotional process are exclusively situational in nature. Just as the leading emotional process concretizes the general inherited emotional attitude (opened in the form of "key" experiences) in relation to the conditions of individual life, the derived emotional process concretizes the general leading emotional attitude in relation to the conditions of the present situation. The apparatus of derivative emotions as a whole provides a kind of resolution of the situation.
Emotional sensations are biologically, in the process of evolution, fixed as a kind of way to maintain the life process within its optimal boundaries and warn of the destructive nature of a lack or excess of any factors. The more complex a living being is organized, the higher the step on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer is the range of all kinds of emotional states that it is able to experience.
psychological science is rich in studies that try to reveal the patterns of the emotional development of a person as an important aspect of the formation of his consciousness, activity, his cognitive development, and personality as a whole. Among these studies, one can single out those that are based on the interaction of the biological principle and the social experience of a person, on the initial personal attachment, sympathy, on the importance of interpersonal interaction in the family, with peers, that is, with society, on leading cognitive activity and an active personal position in it. .
Despite the versatility of the criteria underlying the emotional development in these concepts and theories, they are united by an important position for us - the close mutual influence and interaction of the emotional and cognitive in the formation of personality. With the expansion of cognitive activity, with the development of the cognitive functions of the psyche, the content of the emotional sphere of the individual also changes. Emotional development is a process of complication of emotional manifestations: from pleasure / displeasure to deep feelings of sympathy, compassion, empathy. Emotional development is considered as a natural process of formation of emotional neoplasms defined at each stage of ontogenesis.
Thus, the initial stage of the formation of a person’s emotional life has a genetically innate, “pre-adaptation” character, that is, a newborn has the beginnings of certain emotional reactions that allow not only to adapt to a new environment, but also to survive in it. L. S. Vygotsky called such emotions "emotionally emphasized states of sensation." In the process of expanding the "field of activity" of the infant from a simple biological existence to the allocation of a significant person in it - the mother's emotional reactions change and become more complicated, previously aimed only at satisfying needs. At this stage, an emotional connection, primary sympathy, an affective-personal connection with the immediate environment is formed, satisfying the child's need for love, security, confidence in the new world, that is, personal needs. The result of such interaction is the formation of an important personal emotional neoplasm - the "complex of revival", "social reference". That is, emotional reactions become selective. The infant discovers for himself the fact of manipulating the attention of adults with the help of emotions; they become a means of not only satisfying social needs in communication with a close society, a means of regulating (“social reference”) these emotional ties.
During the period early childhood the objective world is revealed to the child, knowing which he creates an autonomous emotionally saturated speech: each word carries an emotional assessment of the object, the phenomenon of the surrounding reality. There is a transformation of the content of emotional experiences. This emotional neoplasm is formed on the basis of the child's practical activities, in the course of learning about the world and society, in the course of the formation of aesthetic, moral feelings. During this period, emotions are socialized. This is a complex process that begins with emotional synthonia (emotional infection), and ends with emotional decentration (the totality of the child's ability to sympathize, empathy) and the formation of empathy.
Finally, the sensitive period for the development of the emotional sphere is preschool. It is during this period that the main emotional neoplasms are formed, which are a kind of result of the interaction of emotional and cognitive components of personality development. The main emotional neoformation of this period was the formation of the process of arbitrary emotional regulation. It includes a number of emotional and cognitive components, mechanisms:
Emotional anticipation of the results of activity, it arises as a result of cognitive activity, based on practical interaction with the surrounding reality. In this activity, a kind of cognitive system is formed, combining both emotional and cognitive processes. In this system, emotions are intellectualized, and knowledge becomes meaningful. Neverovich Ya.Z. called such a system a “synthetic emotional-gnostic complex of the type of affective images”, which model the meaning of certain situations for the subject and regulate the dynamics of his behavior, that is, they form the process of emotional correction of behavior.
Affective generalization as a result of the interaction of emotions and intellect. The experiences of the child acquire meaning, become explicable, first of all, to the child himself, he begins to discover the fact of his experiences himself. What forms the logic of feelings and the beginnings of self-motivation of activity.
Management of emotional manifestations, emotional behavior correction (coordination of behavior with the personal meaning of a certain situation and the performance of actions in it to meet certain interests and needs).
The arbitrariness of emotional manifestations as the ability to subordinate one's immediate desires to a consciously set goal.
Thus, the formation of the emotional sphere, the formation of emotional neoplasms (from the complex of revival as the rudiment of the basis of emotional regulation to arbitrary, meaningful correction of emotional behavior) is a process of development of the basic elements of emotional intelligence.
Thus, the development of leading emotional experiences is the central process of the formation of the emotional sphere of reflection, continuing throughout the entire ontogeny. Emotional formation is a process of complication of emotional manifestations: from pleasure - displeasure to deep feelings of sympathy, compassion, empathy.
The quantity and quality of a person's needs, in general, corresponds to the number and variety of emotional experiences and feelings characteristic of him, and the higher the need in terms of its social and moral significance, the higher the feeling associated with it.
2. The level of formation of the emotional sphere of modern youth
2.1. Brief description of the research base
In the first chapter, we examined and studied the features of the emotional sphere of modern youth, as well as the role and features of the formation of emotions. We came to the conclusion that the process of forming the emotional sphere of a student is determined by the position in society, the duties and functions of a person who is in a higher educational institution. And the development of leading emotional experiences is the central process of the formation of the emotional sphere of reflection, continuing throughout the entire ontogenesis. Therefore, emotional development is a process of complication of emotional manifestations: from pleasure / displeasure to deep feelings of sympathy, compassion, empathy.
In the experimental part of our work, we decided to find out the level of formation of the emotional sphere of modern youth in order to confirm or refute our hypothesis that the emotional sphere of girls has the largest emotional range and a greater degree of severity of the range compared to the emotional sphere of young men.
We conducted a survey, the results of which are presented in Appendix 1.
Research base: The study involved students of universities, colleges, and readers of the library. Chavain, Yoshkar-Ola. The number of our subjects is 20 people: 10 boys and 10 girls aged 18 to 22 years. All of them voluntarily and anonymously agreed to participate in our study. The following diagnostic methods were offered to the attention of our respondents.
2.2. Methods for studying the emotional sphere
1. Questionnaire B.I. Dodonov to study the emotional orientation of the individual.
Dodonov Boris Ignatievich (1922 - 03.05.1985) - Russian psychologist. In 1950 he graduated from the Crimean Pedagogical Institute. M.V. Frunze. He studied at the graduate school of the Research Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the RSFSR. In 1962 he defended his Ph.D. thesis, in 1980 - his doctoral thesis. Worked at the Simferopol Pedagogical Institute. Professor. Specialist in emotional regulation of human behavior and activity. He developed the concept of the emotional orientation of the personality, based on the understanding of emotions as a special kind of value. Created a number of techniques for identifying individual characteristics of emotions. The methodology for studying the emotional orientation of a person consists of 60 different statements. All statements are divided into 10 scales, each of which reflects a certain emotional direction of the individual.
The subject is asked to answer 15 questions. For each affirmative answer, 1 point is awarded. The total points are calculated. The more points the subject scores, the higher his emotionality. From 0 to 5 points - low emotionality, from 6 to 10 points - medium, from 11 points and above - high.
The text of the questionnaire consists of 42 statements. Before processing, make sure that all questions are answered. Keys are used to calculate points on a particular scale. Scoring is done by summing up all the points on this scale. The questionnaire includes 6 questions that serve to test the adequacy of the respondents' assessment of their behavior. Subjects who scored 18 points or more on this scale, according to the instructions of the author of the methodology, should be excluded from further processing. The points scored for each of the scales of the methodology are calculated. Summing up the scores on all three scales, they get the value of the overall emotionality. The norm is from 78 to 102 points.
2.3. Analysis of the results
As a result of the study of the emotional sphere of students and youth, we received the following data.
According to the method of Dodonov, our respondents revealed the following emotional orientations of the personality:
Table 1. The results of the emotional orientation of met. Dodonov.
Personality orientations Boys (persons) Girls (persons) Total number (%)
Altruistic 9 7 80%
Communicative 9 10 90%
Gloric 6 5 55%
Praxic 5 6 55%
Pugnicheskaya 6 4 50%
Romantic 7 10 85%
Gnostic 6 6 60%
Aesthetic 6 8 70%
Hedonistic 8 9 85%
Akizitive 5 6 55%
As can be seen from Table 1 and Diagram 1, which clearly illustrates the results of our study, our respondents had the most pronounced communicative (90%), hedonistic (85%), romantic (85%) and altruistic (80%) emotional orientations of the personality.
Diagram 1. Results of emotional orientation according to the Dodonov method
Next, we decided to compare the emotional orientations according to this method in boys and girls. As can be seen from Diagram 2, girls are more emotional than boys.
Diagram 2. The results of emotional orientation in boys and girls according to the Dodonov method
According to the "Determination of emotionality" method, most of our subjects have an average level of emotionality (30% of girls and 35% of boys). A high level of emotionality is observed in 20% of girls and only in 5% of boys. Thus, according to this method, we conclude that girls are more emotional than boys.
Tab.2. The results of determining emotionality
according to the method of V. Suvorova
Levels of emotionality Girls Boys
High 20% 5%
Medium 30% 35%
Low - 10%
In the study of emotionality according to the method of V. Rusalov, we found that our subjects have the most pronounced communicative (70%) and intellectual emotionality (70%).
Table 3. Results of diagnostics of emotionality
according to the method of V. Rusalov
Scales Girls (persons) Boys (persons)
Psychomotor emotionality High-6
Medium-3
Low-1 High-5
Medium-3
Low-2
Intellectual emotionality High-7
Medium-3
Low-0 High-7
Medium-3
Low-0
Communicative emotionality High-8
Medium-2
Low-0 High-6
Medium-4
Low-0
However, comparing the results of the study, we saw that with an equal degree of intellectual orientation in the general group of subjects, girls have a higher communicative emotionality than boys (see Diagram 3). Also from the diagram we see that psychomotor emotionality in girls is more pronounced than in boys.
Diagram 3. Diagnostics of emotionality
according to the method of V. Rusalov
So, as a result of our study, we came to the following conclusions: our respondents had the most pronounced communicative (90%), hedonistic (85%), romantic (85%) and altruistic (80%) emotional orientations of the personality.
This suggests that the emotions of our respondents are based on needs: in communication, friendly relations, a sympathetic interlocutor; physical and mental comfort; striving for everything unusual, mysterious; assistance and assistance, patronage of other people.
Most of our subjects have an average level of emotionality (30% of girls and 35% of boys). A high level of emotionality is observed in 20% of girls and only in 5% of boys.
Our subjects have the most pronounced communicative (70%) and intellectual emotionality (70%). With an equal degree of intellectual orientation in the general group of subjects, girls have a higher communicative emotionality than boys. Also from the diagram we see that psychomotor emotionality in girls is more pronounced than in boys.
Conclusion
So, thanks to the emotion that has arisen in time, the body has the opportunity to adapt extremely favorably to the surrounding conditions. He is able to quickly and quickly respond to external influences without having yet determined its type, form, and other particular specific parameters.
Thus, emotions in human activity perform the function of evaluating its course and results. They organize activity, stimulating and directing it. Feelings formed on the basis of emotions become the main determinants of a person's emotional life, on which the emergence and content of situational emotions depend.
The main meaningful characteristic of emotions and feelings in adolescence is the future. Dominated by emotions associated with the expectation of the future, "which should bring happiness."
In most cases, the emerging feeling of first love causes boys and girls to strive to overcome their shortcomings, develop positive personality traits, develop physically in order to attract the attention of the object of their feelings; love brings up noble feelings and aspirations.
The process of forming the emotional sphere of a student is determined by the position in society, the duties and functions of a person who is in a higher educational institution.
The development of leading emotional experiences is the central process of the formation of the emotional sphere of reflection, which continues throughout ontogenesis. Emotional development is a process of complication of emotional manifestations: from pleasure / displeasure to deep feelings of sympathy, compassion, empathy.
The quantity and quality of a person's needs, in general, corresponds to the number and variety of emotional experiences and feelings characteristic of him, and the higher the need in terms of its social and moral significance, the higher the feeling associated with it.
As a result of our experimental study of the emotional and personal sphere of modern youth, the following conclusions were made:
our respondents had the most pronounced communicative, hedonistic, romantic and altruistic emotional orientations of the personality.
This suggests that the emotions of our respondents are based on needs: in communication, friendly relations, a sympathetic interlocutor; physical and mental comfort; striving for everything unusual, mysterious; assistance and assistance, patronage of other people.
Most of our subjects have an average level of emotionality. A high level of emotionality is observed in 20% of girls and only in 5% of boys.
Our subjects have the most pronounced communicative and intellectual emotionality. With an equal degree of intellectual orientation in the general group of subjects, girls have a higher communicative emotionality than boys. Also, psychomotor emotionality in girls is more pronounced than in boys.
Thus, the hypothesis of our study that the emotional sphere of girls is characterized by the largest emotional range and a greater degree of severity of the range compared to the emotional sphere of boys was confirmed.
The purpose of the study is achieved, the objectives of the course work are fulfilled.
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Attachment 1.
Questionnaire B.I. Dodonov for the study of the emotional orientation of the individual
Instruction: You are offered descriptions of various human experiences. Your task is to carefully read each description and answer “yes” or “no” for yourself by putting in the appropriate box of the registration form:
the number "1" (one) - if you often experience this experience,
the number "O" (zero) - if you do not experience this experience or experience it extremely rarely,
- (dash) - if you strongly doubt the choice of answer.
Try to answer informally, sincerely.
1. Thirst for thrills.
2. The desire to communicate, share thoughts and experiences, find a response to them.
3. Desire to bring joy and happiness to others.
4. Striving for the extraordinary, the unknown.
5. The desire to win recognition, honor.
6. Desire to succeed in work.
7. Feeling of care, concern for the fate of someone.
8. Enjoying pleasant physical sensations from delicious life, warmth, sun.
9. Feeling of sympathy, location.
10. The desire to acquire something.
11. The desire to understand something, to penetrate into the essence of the phenomenon.
12. Feeling respect for someone.
13. Thirst for beauty.
14. Empathy for the good fortune and joy of another person.
15. Feeling of security, serenity.
16. Feeling of surprise or bewilderment.
17. A feeling of wounded pride and a desire to take revenge.
18. The desire to accumulate something.
19. Feeling of tension.
20. Rapture of danger, risk.
21. Enthusiasm, preoccupation with work.
22. The desire to replenish your collection.
23. Waiting for a bright miracle, something extraordinary ^ very good.
24. Feeling of sports excitement.
25. Nega ("sweet laziness")
26. Pleasant tickling of pride.
27. Feeling of clarity or, on the contrary, vagueness of thoughts.
28. Joy on the occasion of increasing one's savings.
29. An enticing feeling was given.
30. Feeling of pride.
31. Enjoying the beauty of something or someone.
32. An exciting feeling of a strangely transformed perception of the surroundings: everything seems different, extraordinary, full of significance and mystery.
33. Decisiveness.
34. Feeling of fun.
35. Admiring the results of one's labor, its products.
36. A pleasant feeling when acquiring something.
37. An irresistible desire to overcome the contradictions of one's own reasoning, to bring everything into a system.
38. Sports anger.
39. Feeling of conjecture, proximity to a solution.
40. Feeling of appreciation, gratitude.
41. A pleasant feeling when reviewing one's savings, collections, etc.
42. Feeling of tenderness or tenderness.
43. Feeling graceful, graceful.
44. Feeling adored by someone.
45. Feeling of superiority.
46. Pleasant fatigue.
48 Feeling of special significance of what is happening.
49. Feeling sublime or majestic.
50. Feeling of devotion.
51. Pleasant satisfaction that the job is done, that the day was not in vain.
52. Voluptuousness, sexual desire with anticipation of pleasure.
53. Feeling of participation, pity.
54. Enjoying sounds.
55. Feeling of the strongest volitional emotional tension, extreme mobilization.
56. The joy of discovering the truth.
57. Desire to earn approval from close and respected people.
58. Feeling of exciting drama ("sweet pain").
59. Feeling sinister-mysterious.
60. A sense of satisfaction that, as it were, grew in one's own eyes, increased the value of one's personality.
End of the questionnaire. Thank you for your work!
Interpretation of emotional orientations:
1 Altruistic - based on the need for assistance and assistance, patronage of other people;
2 Communicative - based on the need for communication, friendly relations, a sympathetic interlocutor;
3. Gloric - the need for self-affirmation, fame, honor;
4. Praxic - value experiences associated with the implementation of activities that the subject needs in itself;
5. Pugnicheskaya - wrestling. It is based on the need to overcome the danger, on the basis of which there is later an interest in the fight;
6. Romantic - the desire for everything extraordinary, mysterious;
7. Gnostic - the desire to understand, to solve a complex problem;
8. Aesthetic - craving for works of art, the desire for aesthetic harmony with the world, for experiencing a sense of beauty;
9. Hedonistic - an expression of the need for bodily and spiritual comfort;
10 Akizitive - (acquisition) - craving for accumulation, collecting things that go beyond the practical need for them.
Questionnaire key:
Altruistic 3,7,14,42,50,53
Communicative 2,9,12,40,44,57
Gloric 5,17,26,30,45,60
Praxic 6.19.21.35, 47.51
Pugnicheskaya 1.20, 24.33.38.55
Romantic 4,23,29,32,48,59,
Gnostic 11,16,27,37,39,56
Aesthetic 13,31,43,49,54,58
Hedonistic 8,15,25,34,46,52
Akizitive 10,18,22,28,36,41
Treatment:
yes - 2 points no - 0 points? - 1 point
Guidelines for processing test results
The subject immediately encodes his answers on a 2-point system (positive answer, agreement with the emotion - number 2 in the registration form, indefinite answer ("I don't know, it's hard to say") - number 1, and a negative answer - number 0 in the registration form. To calculate the raw score for each emotional orientation, the experimenter needs to calculate the sum of the numbers in the boxes of each key.
Thus, the maximum score for each emotional orientation can be 12 (6 questions with a maximum of 2 points for each), and the minimum - 0 points.
2. Method "Determination of emotionality"
The technique was proposed by V. V. Suvorova (1976) and makes it possible to judge emotionality by an integral indicator.
Instruction. Carefully read (listen to) the questions, and if you have the described symptoms, then put a “+” sign next to the question number. If you do not have any symptoms, then put a "-" sign
Questionnaire text
1. Can you blush so much from embarrassment or shame that you yourself feel that your cheeks are burning and tears are welling up in your eyes?
2. Have you ever turned pale with fear or disappointment?
3. Are you often embarrassed, do you tend to be shy?
4. Do you cry easily from resentment, unhappiness, empathy, or even joy? Can you have tears of aesthetic pleasure when listening to music, reading poetry?
5. Did you break out in a sweat in an unpleasant or difficult environment?
6. Do you have dry mouth when you are very excited? Does your voice sink in?
7. In moments of great excitement or embarrassment, do you feel the stiffness of the limbs, when the legs become rigid, "stilted" or "cotton" and give way?
8. Have you noticed the trembling of your fingers when you are very agitated or embarrassed, do you have internal trembling and a chill-like state (“frost on the skin”)?
9. Do you really worry so much before every performance that it seems to you that you have forgotten everything?
10. Can you lose your mind, get confused and shut up while answering an exam, public speaking?
11. Do you often get irritated and resentful? Can you, being angry with a child, punish him in the heat of the moment?
12. Do you tend to quarrel with loved ones if you see the injustice of their actions? Does it often end with your tears, despondency and remorse?
13. You really can't disconnect from troubles and sorrows, not think about them, and a bad mood completely dominates you for a long time?
14. Have you noticed, in moments of excitement or embarrassment, excessive fussiness, motor disinhibition?
15. Do you have pain in the area of the solar plexus when you are agitated?
Processing survey results. For each affirmative answer, 1 point is awarded. The total points are calculated.
Interpretation. The more points the subject scores, the higher his emotionality. From 0 to 5 points - low emotionality, from 6 to 10 points - medium, from 11 points and above - high.
3. Method for diagnosing emotionality according to V. M. Rusalov
This variant represents a fragment of the questionnaire of the formal-dynamic properties of individuality by V. M. Rusalov. The author distinguishes three types of manifestation of emotionality: psychomotor (EM), communicative (EC) and intellectual (EI). Accordingly, the methodology has three scales.
Instruction. You are invited to answer a series of questions aimed at finding out your usual way of behavior. Try to imagine the most typical situations and give the first natural answer that comes to mind. Answer quickly pi accurately. Remember that there are no "good" or "bad" answers.
Put a cross or a tick in the column that corresponds to the statement that most correctly describes your behavior: “not typical”; "little characteristic"; "quite characteristic"; "characteristic".
Answer form
No. No
characteristic Little characteristic Quite characteristic Characteristic No. No
characteristic Little characteristic Quite characteristic Characteristic
1 22
2 23
3 24
4 25
5 26
6 27
7 28
8 29
9 30
10 31
11 32
12 33
13 34
14 35
15 36
16 37
17 38
18 39
19 40
20 41
21 42
Questionnaire text
1. I get very upset when I don't do as well in an exam as I expected.
2. I always keep my promises, whether it's convenient for me or not.
3. I am upset when I discover my mistakes when doing intellectual work.
4. I feel uncomfortable because I have bad handwriting.
5. I get upset when I don't do a task the way I should.
6. I am very nervous before the upcoming exam.
7. I experience anxiety when crossing the street in front of moving traffic.
8. I get upset if I can't make something myself.
9. I am very worried before a responsible conversation. 10. I have never been late for a date or work.
I. When communicating with people, I often feel insecure.
12. I often feel fear that I may not be able to cope with work that requires mental effort.
13. I am often upset by minor mistakes made when solving a problem.
14. I am upset that I write slowly and sometimes I do not have time to write down the necessary information.
15. I am a vulnerable person.
16. When I do work that requires fine coordination of movements, I experience some excitement.
17. I worry when they don't understand me in a conversation.
18. Sometimes I talk about things I don't understand.
19. I often cannot sleep because I cannot find a solution to a problem.
20. I get very worried when I have to sort things out with friends.
21. In a conversation, I am easily offended over trifles.
22. My mood deteriorates when I cannot solve a problem for a long time.
23. It upsets me that I am physically less developed than I would like.
24. I get upset when arguing with friends.
25. I have thoughts that I would not like to communicate to others.
26. I tend to exaggerate my mental failures.
27. In manual labor, the slightest malfunction annoys me.
28. My mood often deteriorates due to the fact that the thing I have done is not entirely successful.
29. Sometimes I exaggerate the negative attitude towards myself from my loved ones.
30. Starting to solve even a simple task, I feel a sense of insecurity.
31. I sometimes gossip.
32. I worry about the fact that I do not have sufficiently expressed abilities to master the craft that interests me.
33. I get frustrated when I don't have enough dexterity in sports games on vacation.
34. I am easily offended if my shortcomings are pointed out to me.
35. It upsets me that I do not know my craft (needlework) well enough.
36. I get very nervous during the exam.
37. I thoroughly plan the upcoming mental work in order to avoid possible mistakes.
38. When I make something, I pay attention to even minor errors.
39. Among my acquaintances there are people whom I clearly do not like.
40. I don't try to avoid conflicts.
41. I need people who give me encouragement and comfort.
42. I feel resentment because people around me seem to treat me worse than they should.
Response processing. Before processing, make sure that all questions are answered. Keys are used to calculate points on a particular scale. Scoring is done by summing up all the points on this scale.
Key: questions No. 2, 10, 18, 25, 31, 38 serve to test the adequacy of the respondents' assessment of their behavior. Subjects who scored 18 points or more on this scale, according to the instructions of the author of the methodology, should be excluded from further processing.
Scale Question numbers
Psychomotor emotionality 4,7,8,14,16, 23, 27, 28, 32, 33, 35, 38
Intellectual emotionality 1,3,5,6,12,13, 19, 22, 26, 30, 36, 37
Communicative emotionality 9,11,15,17,20, 21, 24, 29, 34, 40, 41, 42
Interpretation. On each of these scales, you can score from 12 to 48 points. Low values of emotionality are in the range up to 25 points inclusive, medium - from 26 to 34 points, and high - 35 or more points.
Summing up the scores on all three scales, they get the value of the overall emotionality. The norm is from 78 to 102 points.
Appendix 2
The results of an experimental study of the emotional sphere of personality
Methods: Questionnaire Dodonov Defined.
Emotional
Met. Rusalov
№ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3
1 10 12 8 8 12 10 12 10 12 8 7 25 27 25
2 10 8 10 6 8 10 10 8 10 10 10 25 39 35
3 8 8 10 8 10 8 6 10 12 8 9 27 26 35
4 10 10 8 10 8 8 8 8 12 10 11 36 37 28
5 8 10 10 10 8 10 6 8 10 12 13 26 32 37
6 6 8 8 8 10 8 10 12 10 8 10 27 35 31
7 10 10 8 10 8 10 8 10 10 10 12 39 34 32
8 8 8 6 8 10 12 10 8 8 10 8 25 28 38
9 8 12 8 10 10 12 8 10 8 8 10 36 29 29
10 6 8 10 8 8 10 12 6 8 10 13 35 31 31
11 8 8 8 10 10 8 10 10 10 8 8 33 36 38
12 6 10 10 8 8 12 8 6 8 8 5 27 25 33
13 8 8 10 10 10 10 10 8 8 6 6 23 36 36
14 8 10 8 8 8 12 12 8 10 8 8 28 22 27
15 10 6 8 10 8 10 10 6 8 8 11 27 29 37
16 8 8 6 8 10 12 10 10 8 10 9 27 37 31
17 10 10 8 8 10 10 12 8 10 8 7 31 36 38
18 6 8 10 8 8 10 8 8 8 8 10 30 46 29
19 8 10 8 10 8 6 10 8 12 6 8 27 37 37
20 6 6 10 8 8 8 10 6 8 8 4 26 35 35
Objective (expressive) signs of the pathology of emotions.
Emotional disorders are manifested in the features of psychomotor. In particular, they reveal themselves in the expression of the eyes (live, dull, sad, anxious, angry, etc.), in facial expressions, facial expressions and pantomimes (omega figure, Veragut's fold in depression, etc.), in gait (quick or weaving ), in a pose (straightened, proud, tense, bent), in a voice (quiet, loud, confident, timid). Emotional pathology may be indicated by relaxation or tension of the muscles, the occurrence of tremors, changes in breathing (shallow, deep, rapid), acceleration, slowing down, irregularity of the pulse and other vascular disorders. Protracted emotional disorders are accompanied by changes in the function of the secretory glands (dryness of the mucous membranes or profuse salivation, absence of tears, especially sweating, as well as changes in the neurotrophic of the skin (hyperemia or pallor of the face, other skin integuments). It is important to remember that the autonomic manifestations of emotional reactions are individual: in some the experience of shame or anger is accompanied by redness, others - pallor, with fear, most people experience constipation, some have diarrhea, with emotional difficulties, some have bradycardia, others have tachycardia, also - an increase in blood pressure or a decrease in it, etc. Individual features of the autonomic response are preserved in pathology.
Possible somatic signs of emotional pathology should be taken into account: sleep disturbance, features of dreams, vague gastric complaints, constipation, diarrhea (less common), a feeling of constriction in the heart, headaches, sexual disorders (decreased potency, premature ejaculation, anorgasmia), dysmenorrhea, enuresis (mostly in children), skin disorders.
The expressive emotional component is more pronounced with intense elementary physiological and pathological emotions (anger, fear, longing), but it also occurs with less intense emotional pathology, in particular, with the pathology of higher feelings. In these cases, expressive manifestations are weaker, paler, less expressive. It must be borne in mind that even in a state of passion, patients can to a certain extent control some expressive manifestations (mimic-pathomimic), while autonomic, vascular, biochemical and other components are not subject to arbitrary control and concealment. At the same time, it should be taken into account that individual expressive elements of emotions, both in normal and pathological conditions, can be expressed unevenly, and in some pathological conditions (damage to the diencephalon, schizophrenia, etc.), split-off and paradoxical vegetative-visceral manifestations of fear may occur. , anxiety, anger, facial expressions of sadness, joy, conflicting components of various emotions without their subjective (impressive) adequate experience. Cleavage (dissociation) of viscero-vegetative and motor components from mental (impressive) is manifested, for example, in violent laughter and crying (emotional incontinence) in organic diseases of the brain (vascular diseases, a consequence of traumatic brain injury, encephalitis, focal epilepsy, etc.). .). These disorders can be extremely intense, turn on suddenly, even with neutral stimuli, neutral changes in the situation, do not correspond to the situation, and often directly contradict it. Patients completely lose control over their expressive emotional manifestations, talk about their coercion, arbitrary control of them, regret or are embarrassed by their appearance.
Being only integral part emotions, expression at the same time supports, stabilizes, and in case of pathology it tightens emotions, creating a vicious circle. In order to mitigate or extinguish emotions, it is possible to influence both their impressive and expressive side (hypnosis, autogenic training, etc.).
The objectification of emotional disorders is also facilitated by paraclinical and pathopsychological studies of expression. In particular, the most simple and informative are: registration of heart rate and respiration, studies of GSR, ECG, EEG, an associative experiment with the inclusion of indifferent and emotional words, Rorschach, Luscher tests. The importance of objective signs for assessing the emotional state of children is especially great. For them, along with the indicated methods, it is important to study the features of gaming activity.
Nevertheless, the subjective report of the patient is the main one for assessing the state of the emotional sphere. To obtain a full report, it is necessary to use some methods of conducting a conversation. First of all, it must be borne in mind that emotional reactions are the most important entrance gates to the knowledge of motives, needs, conflicts. They are functional internal signals that reflect the relationship between the needs of various levels (biological and social) and the success or failure of their satisfaction. The constellation of external and internal conflicts is expressed in the corresponding affect, emotion (fear, tension, anger, disappointment, longing, etc.). This area of motivational dispositions is especially important in outpatient practice (neurotic complaints, psychosomatic disorders, pathological inclinations, etc.). Clarifying internal conflicts is the most difficult part of psychiatric research. The fact is that the patient is not always ready or able to put his painful experiences in connection with an actual or long-term conflict situation. Finding out the presence of external conflicts should be carried out carefully, but extremely delicately. In no way should there be elements of imposition, suggestion. It is important to clarify what needs and aspirations and on what basis, on what occasion came into conflict, what feelings (fear, anger, despair, tension, etc.) accompanied this conflict, what possibilities for resolving it were experienced before and what are their results. It is necessary to find out the relative role of the conflict in the structure of personal relationships and its significance in the formation of the patient's complaints. Internal conflicts are usually not recognized and therefore, in most cases, patients at the beginning of the study do not indicate their presence. In addition, often patients do not find it necessary to report their fears, inner need and difficulties due to the peculiarities of their upbringing, traditional understanding of the disease, negative preliminary experience. That is why it is extremely important to create an atmosphere of trust and careful, extremely careful conversation. After the patient has reported his complaints and the most important anamnestic information has been discussed, it is necessary, by flexible variation of the conversation, to explore possible difficulties and conflicts, fears, fears and insecurities with which painful manifestations may stand in a whiter or less close connection.
To assess the state of the patient's emotional sphere, it is essential to identify the preferred ways for him to eliminate negative emotional stress, anxiety, ways out of a conflict situation, psychological defense mechanisms. Psychological defense can be active and passive (the latter is more common), conscious and unconscious. In particular, these are rationalization, regression, projection, repression, identification, compensation, hypercompensation, fantasizing, fixation, sublimation, repression, idealization, symbolization, dreams, formation of complexes, dissociation, denial, isolation, introjection, suppression, displacement, substitution, resistance, etc. (Shibutani T., 1969).
Psychological protection is observed mainly in neurotic and psychosomatic pathology, in personality pathology. In the structure of psychopathological disorders, a rather specific nature of psychopathological defense is observed. So rituals in patients with psychasthenia are a kind of psychological defense, in which their target orientation is not hidden from the patient, but their pathogenesis is not realized. Psychological defense reflects the deep protective stereotypes of the body's response. Consideration should be given to the dependence of the forms of psychological defense and their set on the personality characteristics of the individual, on the type of nervous activity and constitution. So, according to V.E. Rozhnov and M.E. Burno (1978), children, infantile and hysterical personalities are characterized by psychological protection such as the displacement of psycho-traumatic moments from consciousness, non-psychotic narrowing of consciousness, and the elimination of psycho-traumas in dreams. Asthenics are characterized by a passive-defensive withdrawal from a traumatic situation with the recognition of their own insolvency. For patients with epilepsy, epileptoid psychopathy, organic brain damage, on the contrary, a maliciously aggressive, aggressively defensive defense is typical. With excitable psychopathy, the discharge of mental tension occurs due to violent expressive movements and actions. The feeling of unreality of what is happening (depersonalization-derealization phenomena) as a mechanism for relieving anxiety, temporary mental anesthesia is observed in asthenic, psychasthenic and schizoid psychopathy and accentuations. These forms of psychological defense can also occur in healthy individuals during sensory isolation and stress. A kind of personality regression, with the desire to dissolve in nature, connect with it, feel kinship with plants, animals is observed in people with schizoid psychopathy, with sluggish schizophrenia. In the vast majority of psychogenic diseases, the activation of psychological defense mechanisms precedes the onset of the disease. The insufficiency of psychological defense mechanisms and their disruption under the influence of a psychogenic factor determines the onset of the disease. According to F.V. Bassin, underdevelopment or breakdown of psychological defense facilitates the development of diseases of a gross organic nature (Bassin F.V., 1969, 1971, 1974).
It should also be borne in mind that the cumulation of emotions, sensitization to them and various abortive ways of “responding” to affects with insufficient discharge can lead to increased fatigue, apathy or irritability, explosiveness and hypochondria, as well as to the formation of psychosomatic disorders, the formation of “pathological complexes ”, pathological personality development, deviant and delinquent behavior.
Active exploration of conflict often encounters opposition from patients. In this regard, avoidance of the question, delay or silence make one assume the presence of hidden experiences, a “forbidden topic”. It is necessary to pay attention to the affective reactions that arise when the conversation touches on a particular topic. It is inappropriate to prematurely hastily discuss and comment on the identified conflicts, as this may cause patients to seek to avoid further conversation. It is often necessary to expend considerable effort to encourage patients to self-disclosure, so that they talk about their difficulties, desires, fears and concerns. At the same time, it is important to learn how to "read between the lines" in this regard, to find gaps in the patient's statements. Contradictions and omissions may point to an affectively significant area.
Perhaps one of the most serious tasks in the study of the state of the emotional sphere is the identification of depression. In the case of the assumption of the presence of this pathology, it is advisable to obtain answers to the following questions:
Has your mood ever been out of whack?
Do you see a reason for this?
Has something bad happened or is happening to you?
Are you slower than before? In thoughts, movements, ingenuity?
Do you feel bodily (physically) sick, weak, tired?
Is your body functioning correctly as it always has (stool, sleep, appetite, sex drive, weight, etc.)?
Did you have many worries? Unreasonable? From what? Has it always been like this with you? Only now?
Have you become nervous? Restless? Fearful? What reasons could cause fear?
A very strong fear? Fear of death? Did you have fears that something might happen to you? Did your heart beat sometimes especially strongly? Has it ever been that fear squeezed your chest (throat)?
Have you preferred to avoid interacting with other people? Were contacts broken? Since when?
Have you always been able to truly sympathize (empathize) with other people?
Have you experienced the joys or sorrows of your friends (relatives) more than your own?
Do you sometimes feel "inwardly empty"?
Are your thoughts flowing slower than before?
Do you find it harder than before to concentrate on anything?
Do you ever need to think over things over and over again?
Do you cry a lot? Why?
Can't you cry anymore?
Do you do everything (many) without the joy of pleasure? Was it always like this?
Do you see the future in black colors?
Does life give you a lot of worries (entertainment) or not?
Do you have any more hopes?
Do you always have an even mood?
Do you feel better sometimes? For example, in the evening or after dinner? Or in a certain environment?
Have you ever thought that you are worse than others?
Have you thought that you carry any guilt in you? (carefully). More than others made mistakes? Have you reprimanded yourself? Were you afraid that you would be punished for this?
Did you believe that you deserved the punishment?
A similar list of questions can be created for patients with euphoria, hypomania, a syndrome of fear, anxiety, etc. In recent decades, a number of methods (scales) have been used to study emotional pathology (Hamilton, Montgomery-Asberg, Tsung, etc. Covey, Hamilton, Tsung, etc. to assess anxiety, etc.).
CHAPTER 11. MOTOR-VOLITIONAL SPHERE AND ITS PATHOLOGY
Introduction
Emotions are a special class of mental processes and states associated with instincts, needs and motives, and reflecting the form of direct experience (joy, grief, fear, etc.), the significance of phenomena and situations affecting the individual for the implementation of his life. Emotions as specific subjective experiences sometimes very brightly color what a person feels, imagines, thinks, emotions are one of the most clearly manifested phenomena of his inner life. It can even be said that, thanks to direct life experience, these phenomena are not only easily detected, but also quite subtly understood. Emotions are associated with the visceral activity of the individual. Emotions are constant companions of a person, influencing his thoughts and activities. Factors of an emotional nature regularly make it difficult to establish contact between the individual and the group.
In people with a weakened ability to effectively self-regulate, emotional problems manifest themselves with particular force and distinctness. The destructive impact of this inability to cope with their feelings in these people can be very different: from failure in the implementation of intentions to deterioration in health. Emotions help a person in his formation, those people in whom they are not sufficiently developed experience problems with adaptation in society, hence the problem of specifics in the emotional sphere in normal and children with mental retardation arose.
In substantiating the relevance of the chosen topic, the main thing is that the formation of emotions, the upbringing of moral, aesthetic feelings contributes to a more perfect attitude of a person to the world around him and society, contributes to the formation of a harmoniously developed personality.
The relevance of this study is that studies of the emotional state of a child with mental retardation are still at an insufficiently high level, and, consequently, the formation of the personality of a mentally retarded child, the study of the potential of such children, unfortunately, is not common.
The purpose of the study is to explore the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation.
Object: emotional states of adolescents.
Subject: features of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation.
The hypothesis of the study is the assumption that when interpreting the results of children with mental retardation, the specificity of their emotional attitude to the surrounding reality will manifest itself, which differs from the emotional attitude to the surrounding reality in normal children.
In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Research methods:
1. Modified eight-color Luscher test;
Projective technique "Drawing of a man";
Projective technique "Cactus",
Mathematical processing of the results of the Mann-Whitney test
The base of the study is a special (correctional) general education school No. 7 of the city of Blagoveshchensk. For comparison, the secondary school No. 6 of Blagoveshchensk was taken. It was attended by adolescents with mental retardation at the age of 14 - 16 years, in the amount of 10 people. And adolescents with normal intelligence, aged 14 - 16 years, in the amount of 10. The total sample of the study is 20 people.
1. Theoretical basis studying the features of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation
.1 Psychological characteristics of adolescence
psychological teenager mental retardation
Adolescence is a sharply flowing transition from childhood to adulthood, in which conflicting trends are convexly intertwined. On the one hand, negative manifestations, disharmony in the structure of personality, curtailment of the previously established system of interests of the child, and the protesting nature of his behavior towards adults are indicative of this difficult period. On the other hand, adolescence is also distinguished by many positive factors: the child’s independence increases, relations with other children and adults become more diverse and meaningful, the scope of his activity expands significantly, etc. Most importantly, this period is distinguished by the child's entering a qualitatively new social position, in which his conscious attitude towards himself as a member of society is formed.
The most important feature of adolescents is their gradual departure from direct copying of adult assessments to self-assessment, an increasing reliance on internal criteria. Representations on the basis of which self-esteem criteria are formed in adolescents are acquired in the course of a special activity - self-knowledge. The main form of self-knowledge of a teenager is comparing himself with other people: adults, peers.
The behavior of a teenager is regulated by his self-esteem, and self-esteem is formed in the course of communication with other people. But the self-assessment of younger adolescents is contradictory, not holistic enough, therefore, many unmotivated actions can occur in their behavior.
Communication with peers is of paramount importance at this age. Communicating with friends, younger teenagers actively master the norms, goals, means of social behavior, develop criteria for evaluating themselves and others, based on the precepts of the “companion code”. External manifestations of the communicative behavior of younger adolescents are very contradictory. On the one hand, the desire at all costs to be the same as everyone else, on the other hand, the desire to stand out, to excel at any cost; on the one hand, the desire to earn the respect and authority of comrades, on the other hand, flaunting one's own shortcomings. The craving for a faithful close friend coexists in younger adolescents with a feverish change of friends, the ability to be instantly fascinated and just as quickly disappointed in former “friends for life”.
The main value of the mark for students in grades 5-7 is that it makes it possible to take a higher position in the class. If the same position can be taken due to the manifestation of other qualities, the significance of the mark falls. Through the prism of the public opinion of the class, the guys also perceive their teachers. Therefore, often younger teenagers come into conflict with teachers, violate discipline and, feeling the silent approval of classmates, do not experience unpleasant subjective experiences.
A teenager in all respects is overwhelmed with a thirst for a “norm”, so that he can be “like everyone else”, “like others”. But this age is characterized by just a disproportion, that is, the absence of "norms". The difference in the pace of development has a noticeable effect on the psyche and self-awareness.
Comparing the development of early (accelerants) and late (retardants) of maturing adolescent boys, we can conclude that the former have a number of advantages over the latter. Accelerator boys feel more confident with their peers and have a more favorable self-image. Early physical development, giving advantages in growth, physical strength, etc., contributes to an increase in prestige among peers and the level of claims.
It is during this period that the intensive development of inner life takes place: along with friendship, friendship arises, nourished by mutual confidentiality. The content of the letters is changing, losing their stereotypical and descriptive character, descriptions of experiences appear in them; attempts are made to keep intimate diaries and the first loves begin.
The main feature of this age is sharp, qualitative changes affecting all aspects of development. The process of anatomical and physiological restructuring is the background against which the psychological crisis proceeds.
The activation and complex interaction of growth hormones and sex hormones cause intense physical and physiological development. The height and weight of the child increase, and in boys, on average, the peak of the “growth spurt” occurs at 13 years old, and ends after 15 years, sometimes lasting up to 17. In girls, the “growth spurt” usually begins and ends two years earlier (further, more slow growth may continue for several more years).
Features of the puberty crisis:
· emotional instability;
sexual arousal;
gender identity,
a new image of the physical "I",
The influence of the pace of maturation on the image of "I" and self-consciousness (accelerates and retandards)
Features of the social situation of the development of adolescence
social situation development represents a transition from dependent childhood to independent and responsible adulthood. A teenager occupies an intermediate position between childhood and adulthood. Social situation of development - Emancipation from adults and grouping.
The problem of leading activity in adolescence
The leading activity of a teenager is communication with peers. The main trend is the reorientation of communication from parents and teachers to peers.
) Communication is a very important information channel for teenagers;
) Communication is a specific type of interpersonal relationship, it forms in a teenager the skills of social interaction, the ability to obey and at the same time defend their rights .;
) Communication is a specific kind of emotional contact. Gives a sense of solidarity, emotional well-being, self-respect.
Psychologists believe that communication includes 2 conflicting needs: the need to belong to a group and isolation (there is an inner world, a teenager feels the need to be alone with himself). A teenager, considering himself a unique personality, at the same time strives to look no different from his peers. A typical feature of adolescent groups is conformity - a person's tendency to assimilate certain group norms, habits and values, imitativeness. The desire to merge with the group, not to stand out in any way, which meets the need for security, is considered by psychologists as a psychological defense mechanism and is called social mimicry.
Learning activities and cognitive development teenagers
Qualitative changes are taking place in the intellectual sphere: theoretical and reflective thinking continues to develop. At this age, a male view of the world and a female one appear. Creative abilities are actively developing. Changes in the intellectual sphere lead to an expansion of the ability to independently cope with the school curriculum. At the same time, many teenagers experience learning difficulties. For many, education takes a backseat.
Features of the personality of adolescents.
Personal instability (radiant optimism and gloomy pessimism).
Opposite traits, aspirations struggle with each other, determining the inconsistency of the character and behavior of the maturing child.
A teenager has conflicting needs: the need to belong to a group and to be isolated (his own inner world appears, the teenager feels the need to be alone with himself).
A teenager, considering himself a unique personality, at the same time strives to look no different from his peers. A typical feature of adolescent groups is conformity - a person's tendency to assimilate certain group norms, habits and values, imitativeness.
The desire to merge with the group, not to stand out in any way, which meets the need for security, is considered by psychologists as a psychological defense mechanism and is called social mimicry.
. “A feeling of adulthood” is the attitude of a teenager towards himself as an adult.
This is expressed in the desire that everyone - both adults and peers, treat him not as a small child, but as an adult. He claims equality in relations with elders and goes into conflicts, defending his "adult" position.
The feeling of adulthood is also manifested in the desire for independence, the desire to protect some aspects of one's life from parental interference.
This applies to issues of appearance, relationships with peers, maybe - studies.
The feeling of adulthood is associated with the ethical standards of behavior that children learn at this time. A moral "code" appears that prescribes to adolescents a clear style of behavior in friendly relations with peers
The development of self-consciousness (the formation of the “I-concept” is a system of internally consistent ideas about oneself, images of the “I”.
The emergence of an inner world, the desire to know oneself through friends, keeping diaries
Critical thinking, a tendency to reflection, the formation of introspection.
The need for self-affirmation, for activities that have personal meaning. Personal orientation:
humanistic orientation - the attitude of a teenager towards himself and society is positive;
selfish orientation - he himself is more significant than society;
depressive orientation - he himself does not represent any value for himself. His attitude to society can be called conditionally positive;
suicidal orientation - neither society nor the individual for itself is of any value.
Teenage accents.
Adolescence is usually referred to as a period of heightened emotionality. This is manifested in excitability, frequent mood swings, imbalance. The character of many adolescents becomes accentuated - an extreme version of the norm.
In adolescents, much depends on the type of character accentuation - the features of transient behavioral disorders (“pubertal crises”), acute affective reactions and neuroses (both in their picture and in relation to the causes that cause them). The type of character accentuation must be taken into account when developing rehabilitation programs for adolescents. This type serves as one of the main guidelines for medical and psychological recommendations, for advice on the future profession and employment, which is very important for sustainable social adaptation.
The type of accentuation indicates weaknesses in the character and thus allows one to foresee factors that can cause psychogenic reactions leading to maladjustment - thereby opening up prospects for psychoprophylaxis.
Usually accentuations develop during the formation of character and smooth out with growing up. Character traits with accentuations may not appear constantly, but only in certain situations, in a certain situation, and almost not be detected under normal conditions. Social maladaptation with accentuations is either completely absent or is short-lived.
Depending on the degree of severity, two degrees of character accentuation are distinguished: explicit and hidden.
obvious accentuation. This degree of accentuation refers to the extreme variants of the norm. It is distinguished by the presence of fairly constant traits of a certain type of character. The severity of traits of a certain type does not prevent the possibility of satisfactory social adaptation. The position occupied usually corresponds to abilities and opportunities. In adolescence, character traits are often sharpened, and under the influence of psychogenic factors that address the “place of least resistance”, temporary adaptation disorders and behavioral deviations may occur. When growing up, character traits remain quite pronounced, but they are compensated and usually do not interfere with adaptation.
hidden accent. This degree, apparently, should be attributed not to the extreme, but to the usual variants of the norm. In ordinary, habitual conditions, the features of a certain type of character are weakly expressed or do not appear at all. However, traits of this type can be clearly, sometimes unexpectedly, revealed under the influence of those situations and mental traumas that place increased demands on the “place of least resistance”.
There are 10 main types of accentuation:
Hyperthymia. People prone to high spirits, optimists, quickly switch from one thing to another, do not finish what they started, undisciplined, easily fall under the influence of dysfunctional companies. Teenagers tend to be adventurous and romantic. They do not tolerate power over themselves, but they love to be patronized. Tendency to dominate, lead. In pathology, obsessional neurosis.
Jam. Tendency to "stuck affect", to delusional reactions. People are pedantic, vindictive, remember grievances for a long time, get angry, offended. Often on this basis, obsessive ideas may appear. Strongly obsessed with one idea. Too aspiring, "stubborn in one", off-scale. Emotionally rigid (below normal). Sometimes they can give affective outbursts (strong nervous excitement), they can show aggression. In pathology - paranoid psychopath.
Emotivity. Affectively labile (unstable). People who quickly and dramatically change their mood for an insignificant reason for others. Everything depends on the mood - both working capacity, and well-being, etc. finely organized emotional sphere; able to deeply feel and experience. Prone to good relationships with others. In love, they are vulnerable like no one else. Not opposed to being taken care of, cared for.
Pedantry. The predominance of traits of pedantry. People are rigid, it is difficult for them to switch from one emotion to another. They like everything to be in its place so that people clearly formulate their thoughts - extreme pedantry. Periods of maliciously dreary mood, everything irritates them. In pathology - epileptoid psychopathy. They can show aggression (remember for a long time and pour out).
Anxiety. People of a melancholic warehouse with a very high level of constitutional anxiety are not self-confident. They underestimate and underestimate their abilities. Shy, afraid of responsibility.
Cyclicity. Sudden mood swings. Good mood is short, bad is long. When depressed, they behave like “anxious”, quickly get tired, and creative activity decreases. When in a good mood as hyperthymic.
Demonstrativeness. In pathology, psychopathy of the hysterical type. People who have a strong egocentricity, the desire to be constantly in the spotlight (“let them hate, if only they were not indifferent”). There are many such people among artists. If there is no ability to stand out, then they attract attention with anti-social acts. Pathological deceit - to embellish your person. Tend to wear bright, extravagant clothes - can be identified purely externally.
Excitability. Tendency to increased impulsive reactivity in the sphere of attraction. In pathology - epileptoid psychopathy.
Dystimism. Tendency to mood disorders. The opposite of hyperthymia. The mood is lowered, pessimism, a gloomy view of things, we tire. He quickly gets tired in contacts and prefers loneliness.
Exaltation. A tendency to affective exaltation (close to demonstrativeness, but there because of the character, but here the same manifestations go, but at the level of emotions, i.e. from temperament).
Emotional-volitional sphere of a teenager.
Its main characteristics: increased emotional excitability, greater stability of emotional experiences, impulsiveness. The inconsistency of the volitional sphere: courage increases, restraint, self-control decrease.
1.2 Analysis of the emotional sphere of adolescence
There are several age periods. According to Elkonin, a teenager is a person between the ages of 11 and 15. Of course, it must be borne in mind that the boundaries of age are conditional. For some children, adolescence may start earlier or end later. It depends on many factors: on the characteristics of the development of the child, on the social and historical situation. In any case, whether it starts earlier or later, this period is difficult for a growing child, and in order to know how to help him, we need to understand what experiences teenagers have, what emotions and for what reason they experience.
The transitional period is usually referred to as a period of increased emotionality, which manifests itself in mild excitability, irascibility, passion, frequent mood swings, increased suggestibility, etc. These psychological features of adolescence are called "adolescent complex". Physiologists explain such manifestations in the sphere of emotions by the rapid puberty that occurs during this period of life. All organs and systems of the body actively develop, sex hormones begin to be released, excitation processes predominate over inhibition processes in the nervous system. Teenage girls are more likely to show mood swings, increased tearfulness, touchiness (in particular, this is due to the appearance of their menstrual cycle). In boys, motor disinhibition is more pronounced. They are very mobile, and even when they are sitting, their arms, legs, torso, head are not at rest for a minute. The physiological restructuring of the organism of adolescents is also accompanied by the appearance of increased fatigue in them.
But the emotional reactions and behaviors of adolescents cannot be explained by hormonal changes alone. They also depend on social factors (environment in which adolescents are), conditions of upbringing and individual characteristics. One of the first places is occupied by the emotional atmosphere in the family. The more restless, tense she is, the more vividly emotional instability will manifest in a teenager. Especially strong will be mood swings, nervous breakdowns. Sensitivity, attentiveness and exceptional tact are required from parents, as teenagers are unusually vulnerable. At the same time, compared to younger students, they already better manage the expression of their feelings and, in certain situations (problems at school, conflicts with peers), they can hide anxiety, excitement, grief, fear under the mask of indifference.
In adolescence, significant changes occur in the emotional sphere, which are determined by the desire of children to look like adults, to take a certain place in life, the desire to assert themselves in the eyes of others and, first of all, peers. This task is not easy, so when difficulties and contradictions arise in achieving the goal, adolescents are acutely worried. But even small successes inspire them. Petty guardianship, excessive control, intrusive care and the desire of adults to influence adolescents reject and resist them. Most conflicts in the upbringing of a teenager arise precisely on this basis. In a word, self-affirmation and self-expression and the feelings associated with them are the main ones in the emotional sphere of a teenager's personality.
Another leading feeling in adolescents is a sense of camaraderie, which gradually turns into a feeling of friendship and love for the opposite sex. At the initial stages of development, the feeling of love is more like being in love. However, the most characteristic qualities of adolescents' feelings are their impulsiveness and affectivity. Ways of expressing emotions become more diverse, the duration of emotional reactions increases.
Communication with peers is of great importance (almost paramount) for a teenager, a large number of experiences are associated with him. Rejection of the team can be a tragedy, the absence of friends - the main experience. Some teenagers can go into their invented world, read books avidly, play computer games day and night. In other words, they do everything possible to detach themselves from the reality around them. Others become aggressive towards their peers who reject them, withdrawing into themselves. In a fit of uncontrollable negative emotions, a teenager can beat a peer, or attempt suicide.
Among adolescents, there are certain requirements for friendly relations - for sensitivity, responsiveness, the ability to keep a secret, understand and empathize. This is the period when a teenager begins to appreciate his relationships with peers. Friendship itself becomes one of the most important values at this age. It is through friendship that a teenager learns to cooperate, to take risks for another, to help a friend, and so on. Adolescents are deeply wounded by betrayal, expressed in the disclosure of confidential revelations or in the appeal of these revelations against the friend himself in a situation of passionate disputes, showdown, quarrels.
Another emotionally significant factor in the life of adolescents is their appearance. They spend a lot of time in front of a mirror, study themselves, look for flaws (as a rule, they find them, even if there are none), deeply experience their imperfection and are dissatisfied with their appearance. The reason for this may be the standards of beauty recognized by society - fashion models, showmen, TV presenters, whose appearance teenagers look up to.
Girls and boys can be painfully worried because of their small stature. Some girls, on the contrary, negatively perceive their high growth. The cause of negative emotions can also be minor skin defects, hair color, overweight.
Adolescents are concerned about the development of their secondary sexual characteristics as indicators of adulthood. So, some girls are very worried because their breasts grow faster than most of their peers (some authors cite cases when girls tighten their breasts with a towel). Others are afraid that they will not become full-fledged girls because they have small breasts and short legs. Still others refuse to attend school due to the increased interest of classmates in their enlarged mammary glands. Still others come into conflict with teachers who do not allow them to wear miniskirts, tight jeans, open-necked sweaters, and the like. The boys have their own problems. Their experiences can be associated with a breaking voice, which sometimes turns into a squeal, with the absence of a sports figure, with inadequate penis sizes, in their opinion, with nocturnal emissions.
I.S. Kohn identifies two reasons for the heightened interest of teenagers in their appearance. First: the appearance of adolescents, passing from childhood to adolescence, undergoes such changes that it is simply impossible not to notice this. Another reason is determined by the influence of the environment. Many parents closely monitor the changes taking place in the appearance of teenagers, waiting for the first signs of adulthood to appear. They look closely at their children and their comrades, compare and discuss their external data. Thus, it is often the parents who provoke the appearance of an “inferiority complex” in their children due to shortcomings in the figure, individual parts of the face, slowed down or accelerated rates of physiological development.
The heightened interest of adolescents in their appearance is only an integral part of their psychosexual development, which also determines the general background of their emotional state. The processes of gender identification, rejection of one's gender, the appearance of the menstrual cycle in girls, early or late sexual development, the emergence of sexual fantasies and masturbations, early sexual intercourse - all this also significantly affects the emotional sphere.
The development of a teenager's self-esteem is associated with the analysis of his experiences. For the first time, teenagers, studying their inner world as if from the outside, are convinced that they are not like other people, they are unique and unrepeatable. Because of this, they have the idea that no one can understand them. Such thoughts are fertile ground for the emergence of increased anxiety and heightened feelings of loneliness, which many authors consider as two typical features of the emotional sphere of adolescents. Under the influence of a sense of their own uniqueness, it seems to a teenager that everything that has ever happened to other people has nothing to do with him. Therefore, they are fearless and capable of very risky actions.
So, let's briefly summarize.
Teens:
They are unbalanced, quick-tempered, their mood can often and unexpectedly change.
They strive to be adults and express violent protest when they continue to be considered children and limit their independence.
They need to communicate with their peers, if communication does not work out, they are deeply worried, can withdraw into themselves, become aggressive towards others and towards themselves.
Worried about their appearance, their abilities, etc.
They feel the need for love and understanding of their parents, since they themselves do not always understand what is happening to them. The difficult situation in the family exacerbates the course of the teenage crisis.
1.3 Patterns of mental development of adolescents with mental retardation
The specificity of psychological health disorders in mentally retarded children is characterized primarily by total underdevelopment of higher cortical functions, inertia of mental processes, total underdevelopment of cognitive activity with a pronounced persistent deficit of abstract thinking, processes of generalization and distraction (T.A. Vlasova, G.M. Dulnev, M. S. Pevzner, S. Ya. Rubinshtein, J. I. Shif).
Features of the cognitive activity of mentally retarded adolescents are characterized by undifferentiated processes of perception and attention, unformed mental and counting operations, a narrow amount of mechanical memory, undifferentiated and low level of mnemonic images. The development of the arbitrariness of mental processes is associated with great difficulties.
The shortcomings of the speech development of mentally retarded adolescents are complex and systemic in nature, characterized by the lack of formation of all aspects of speech activity, pronounced difficulties in generating a speech statement. Violation of oral speech consists in the poverty of passive and active dictionaries, slowness and low emotionality of speech activity, their sentences are poor, monosyllabic, not expressive. First of all, this is due to the lack of formation of cognitive processes, the late development of phonemic perception, general and speech motor underdevelopment, and the abnormal structure of the speech organs.
The process of perception is often limited by various defects of the sense organs, but even with good vision and hearing, the perception of external impressions is difficult due to insufficient active attention. With severe mental retardation, passive attention also suffers. With any mental stress, mentally retarded people get tired much faster than their mentally healthy peers.
There are also noticeable memory impairments. They may be due to an inability to retain perceived images in memory or to establish a connection with past experiences. But in cases of good mechanical memory, mentally retarded adolescents are capable of restoring only individual details, they do not reproduce a complex picture of events, a complex set of impressions, which is associated with a lack of associative process, the ability to reason. Along with a clear insufficiency of semantic memory, sometimes there is a good isolated memory for names, numbers, dates, melodies.
Due to the underdevelopment of higher mental functions, there are difficulties in generalizing the impressions of the past and present, drawing conclusions from them and thus acquiring experience, new knowledge and concepts. The stock of knowledge is always limited. Due to the difficulty in assimilation of abstract concepts, mentally retarded adolescents do not grasp their figurative meaning. The inability to abstraction can already manifest itself in the fact that the counting is carried out only in named numbers or with the help of auxiliary objects, the counting of abstract numbers is not available. It is difficult to distinguish the main from the secondary, the differentiation of phenomena of a different order, the form is better assimilated than the inner meaning of phenomena.
Mentally retarded adolescents have a weakly expressed tendency to fantasize, since they cannot create new images from the material of old ideas.
The most significant violation of the mental activity of adolescents with mental retardation is the lack of a critical attitude towards oneself and the situation, the inability to understand the expediency of one's actions and foresee their consequences.
A common characteristic feature for the emotional-volitional sphere of these individuals is the predominance of not so much subtle differentiated emotions as affects. Emotional experiences are limited by interests that are directly related to them. The stronger mental retardation is, the more desires are aimed at satisfying elementary needs (to satisfy hunger, avoid cold, etc.). They rarely experience dissatisfaction with themselves, a sense of guilt. Underdevelopment and imperfection of volitional functions can manifest itself in a peculiar combination of suggestibility, passive obedience and stubbornness, impulsiveness. Excitability, egocentrism can be in suggestible and timid mentally retarded adolescents.
Due to the fact that mental retardation is based on brain damage, mentally retarded adolescents may experience decompensation or temporary deterioration in their mental state. These decompensations are expressed in anxiety, mood disorders, headaches, worsening of sleep. After drinking alcohol, drugs and toxic substances, with diseases accompanied by high fever and intoxication, these individuals can easily develop rapidly passing psychotic disorders. Psychoses can occur with visual hallucinations, motor excitation, fears, depressions. The aggravation of their intellectual insufficiency can also occur in a traumatic situation.
1.4 Features of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation
When studying the emotional sphere, it is necessary to remember its dual content - this is both an objective process of interaction and exchange of information between people, and their assessment of each other.
Half of the children have emotional instability. Already at an early age they are capricious, tearful, easily irritated, can not stand the noise and fuss. In adolescence, they are short-tempered, disrupting classes, insulting teachers, or protesting with yelling, crying, and destructive actions. Emotional disorders in 50% of cases are combined with restlessness, fussiness, and sometimes disinhibition. Also characteristic are states of effective tension, which are observed more or less constantly in the majority, and episodically occurring effective outbreaks. Almost everyone is not only irritable, but also vicious, easily excitable, prone to aggressive and destructive actions. They constantly quarrel with their peers, fight with them, injure, threaten with violence. In some cases, they themselves become the objects of discharge of their emotional intensity. A smaller number of children have dysthymic disorders, manifesting themselves in the form of intense, absurd and unmotivated euphoria. Along with more complex emotional disturbances, primitive drives are sharply intensified in almost half.
The underdevelopment of the emotional-volitional sphere is also characteristic. Typical are low differentiation and monotony of emotions, poverty or lack of shades of feelings, weakness of motives and struggle of motives, emotional reactions mainly to directly affecting stimuli. Underdevelopment of the emotional sphere exacerbates the general inertia of the psyche, weak mental activity, lack of interest in the environment, lack of initiative, independence. At the same time, the inability to suppress affect or inclination often manifests itself in a tendency to impulsiveness, intense affective reaction (violent outbursts of anger, aggressive discharges) for an insignificant reason.
In the emotional-volitional sphere, there is an underdevelopment of more complex emotions. The inadequacy of emotional reactions is often associated with the inability to separate the main thing from the secondary, secondary. Those experiences that determine interest and motivation for cognitive activity are absent or very weak. But at the same time, even with pronounced degrees of dementia, emotions associated with elementary needs, a specific situation, as well as “sympathetic” emotions are often preserved: manifestations of sympathy for specific individuals, the ability to experience resentment, shame.
The hierarchy of mental underdevelopment is the second most important sign of oligophrenia. It is expressed in the fact that in the absence of complication of oligophrenia, the insufficiency of perception, memory, speech, emotional sphere, motor skills, all other things being equal, is always less pronounced than the underdevelopment of thinking. With a mild degree of oligophrenia, one can even speak of the often encountered relative preservation of individual mental functions. Underdevelopment higher forms thinking is a cardinal, obligatory sign of oligophrenia.
The aspect of social and labor adaptation suggests the need to develop work recommendations that are feasible for people with dementia phenomena. In his writings, the famous psychologist L.S. Vygotsky emphasized that when establishing a labor forecast, it is necessary to take into account not only what has suffered, but also what has been saved. This position was confirmed in the works of some psychiatrists: T.A. Geiger, D.E. Melekhov.
It should be emphasized that only on the basis of complex studies is it possible to develop differentiated social readaptation measures adequate to the clinical condition and age characteristics of oligophrenics.
Currently, the actual psychological issues of the development of cognitive activity, the emotional sphere are being actively studied by a number of domestic researchers. Methods are also being developed for the experimental psychological study of children with the aim of revealing mental retardation and its qualitative characteristics. Especially importance at the present stage, the concept of the mental development of a mentally retarded child, which was put forward by L.S. Vygotsky is one of the first researchers of oligophrenia. Considering the process of development of a mentally retarded child as a single process, where the next stage of development depends on the previous one, and each subsequent way of responding depends on the response earlier, L.S. Vygotsky points out the need to distinguish between a primary defect and secondary developmental complications. L.S. Vygotsky noted that it is impossible to derive the features of the psyche of a mentally retarded child from the main cause of his retardation - the fact of damage to his brain. This would mean ignoring the process of development. Separate features of the psyche are in an extremely difficult position to the main cause.
The most important conclusion that L.S. Vygotsky that a mentally retarded child is "fundamentally capable of cultural development, in principle can develop higher mental functions, but in fact it often turns out to be culturally underdeveloped and deprived of these higher functions." And this is explained by the history of the development of a mentally retarded child, i.e. when biological inferiority deprives him of the opportunity to assimilate the culture of mankind in a timely manner.
L.S. Vygotsky put forward a deeply meaningful concept of the mental development of a mentally retarded child, which has not lost its relevance today.
Analyzing the features of the emotional sphere, S.Ya. Rubinstein points out that the immaturity of the personality of a mentally retarded child, primarily due to the peculiarities of the development of his intellect, manifests itself in a number of features of his emotional sphere: insufficient differentiation of emotional reactions, their ambivalence, primitiveness, inadequacy; emotional reactions are involuntary to influences; emotional reactions are characterized by irritability, a tendency to aggression.
It should also be noted that the more pronounced the disturbances in mental development, the more obvious the mismatch in the emotional sphere.
The study of the features of the emotional sphere of mentally retarded children in our work is represented by the study of the level of anxiety (personal) and the level of aggressiveness.
Anxiety is an emotional state of a purposeful preparatory increase in sensory attention and motor tension in a situation of possible danger, providing an appropriate response to fear.
In general, anxiety is a subjective manifestation of a person's troubles. Anxiety levels are usually elevated:
with diseases of the neuropsychic and severe somatic;
in healthy people experiencing the consequences of mental trauma;
in people with deviant behavior.
Aggression is a personality trait characterized by the presence of destructive tendencies, mainly in the field of subjective-subjective relations.
Aggression towards parents, caregivers, peers of mentally retarded children, as a rule, is unusually cruel, attacks or fights are committed without sufficient understanding of the dangerous consequences of the damage inflicted. Along with physical aggression, verbal aggression is often noted. Often aggressive behavior is a direct repetition of what children themselves experience from other people. The strengthening of this behavior is facilitated by the negative example of parents, older children in a boarding school or school.
Among the forms of aggressive reactions found in various sources, it is necessary to highlight the following:
Physical aggression (attack) - the use of physical force against another person.
Indirect aggression - actions, both in a roundabout way directed at another person (gossip, malicious jokes), and outbursts of rage directed at no one (screaming, stamping their feet, beating their fists on the table, slamming doors, etc.).
Verbal aggression is the expression of negative feelings both through the form (shout, screech, quarrel) and through the content of verbal responses (threats, curses, swearing).
Tendency to irritation - readiness to manifest at the slightest excitation of irascibility, harshness, rudeness.
Negativism is an oppositional demeanor, usually directed against authority or leadership. It can grow from passive resistance to active struggle against established laws and customs.
2. Study of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation
.1 Organization and methods of research
A study was made of the characteristics of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation in order to identify and determine the level of aggressiveness. In the course of the experiment, it was formulated hypothesis:that when interpreting the results of children with mental retardation, the specificity of their emotional attitude to the surrounding reality will manifest itself, which differs from the emotional attitude to the surrounding reality in normal children.
In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, the following tasks were solved:
Spend theoretical analysis psychological literature
To study the development of the emotional sphere in normal children and children with mental retardation.
Conduct an experimental test of the emotional attitude to the surrounding reality of normal children and children with mental retardation.
The study involved a group of adolescents aged 14-16 years old, living in the city of Blagoveshchensk. These are teenagers studying in a special (correctional) general education school No. 7. For comparison, a study was also conducted in the secondary school of the secondary school No. 6 in Blagoveshchensk with adolescents aged 14-16.
In this work, the following methods were used:
Projective technique M.A. Panfilova "Cactus"
The goal is to identify the state of the emotional sphere of the child, to identify the presence of aggression, its direction and intensity.
When processing the results, the data corresponding to all graphical methods are taken into account, namely:
attitude
picture size
line characteristics
pressure force on the pencil
Projective technique "Drawing of a man"
Developed by K. Mahover in 1946 based on the test of F. Goodenough
The purpose of the methodology: Determining the individual characteristics of the child's personality.
The subject is offered to draw a person with a pencil on a blank sheet of paper. Drawing time is not limited. And they ask to create a drawing: "Please draw the person you want." If the child refuses, we must try to convince him. All sorts of questions, which, as a rule, are of a clarifying nature (“what kind of person?”), Should be answered evasively, for example: “any”, “draw whatever you want”. To any expression of doubt, you can say: “you start, and then it will be easier ...”
In response to the request, the child will not necessarily create a full-fledged drawing of a person. He can draw a person in part, something like a bust or in the form of a caricature, a cartoon character, an abstract image. In principle, any drawing can provide important information about the child, however, if the drawing does not meet the requirements, the child is asked to take another sheet of paper and draw the person again, now in full growth, in its entirety: with the head, torso, arms and legs.
The instruction is repeated until a satisfactory drawing of the human figure is obtained. The assessment of the level of intellectual development is carried out on the basis of what parts of the body and details of clothing the subject depicts, how proportions, perspective, etc. are taken into account.
The feature scale for evaluating a drawing contains 46 items.
The man has a head.
He has two legs.
Two hands.
The body is sufficiently separated from the head.
The length and width of the body are proportional.
The shoulders are well defined.
Arms and legs are connected to the body correctly.
The junctions of the arms and legs with the body are clearly marked.
The neck is clearly visible.
The length of the neck is proportional to the size of the body and head.
The man has drawn eyes.
He has a nose.
Mouth drawn.
The nose and mouth are of normal size.
Visible nostrils.
Drawn hair.
The hair is drawn well, it evenly covers the head.
The man is drawn in clothes.
At least the main pieces of clothing (trousers and jacket/shirt) are drawn.
All clothes depicted in addition to the above are well drawn.
Clothing does not contain absurd and inappropriate elements.
There are fingers on the hands.
Each hand has five fingers.
The fingers are quite proportional and not too splayed.
The thumb is fairly well defined.
The wrists are well drawn by narrowing and subsequent expansion of the forearm in the area of the hand.
The elbow joint is drawn.
Drawn knee joint.
The head has normal proportions in relation to the body.
The arms are the same length as the body, or longer, but not more than twice.
The length of the feet is approximately 1/3 of the length of the legs.
The length of the legs is approximately equal to the length of the body or longer, but not more than twice.
The length and width of the limbs are proportional.
Heels can be seen on the legs.
The shape of the head is correct.
Body shape is generally correct.
The outlines of the limbs are accurately conveyed.
There are no gross errors in the transmission of the remaining parts.
The ears are well defined.
The ears are in place and of normal size.
Eyelashes and eyebrows are drawn on the face.
Pupils are located correctly.
The eyes are in proportion to the size of the face.
The person looks straight ahead, the eyes are not slanted to the side.
The forehead and chin are clearly visible.
The chin is separated from the lower lip.
For the fulfillment of each item, 1 point is awarded, for non-compliance with the criterion - 0 points. As a result, the total score is calculated.
A normally mentally developed child should score, in accordance with his age, the points indicated below.
years - 10 points
years - 14 points
years - 18 points
years - 22 points
years - 26 points
years - 30 points
years - 34 points
years - 38 points
years - 42 points
years - over 42 points
Modified eight-color Luscher test
Psychological test invented by Dr. Max Lüscher. Luscher believes that color perception is objective and universal, but that color preferences are subjective, and this difference allows subjective states to be measured objectively with a color test.
The test consists of only 8 cards, from which the subject must sequentially choose the one he likes the most, then the most pleasant of the remaining ones, and so on. Then the whole selection is repeated again.
The test is designed to study the emotional components of a person's relationship to significant people and reflects both the conscious and unconscious level of these relationships.
The study used the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test, which is designed to assess the differences between two samples, in terms of the level, of any quantitatively measured trait. It allows you to identify differences between small samples.
2.2 Analysis and interpretation of results
Processing and analysis of the results according to the projective method "Cactus"
According to the drawn up schedule and their detailed data, as well as the results of the methodology, the description of which was given above in the relevant section, data were obtained on the state of the child's emotional sphere, identifying the presence of aggression, its direction and intensity.
As a result of the methodology carried out on a group of adolescents in the amount of 10 people studying in a correctional school, it can be concluded that adolescents are dominated by a high degree of aggressiveness, which can be seen due to the presence of strongly protruding, long, closely spaced needles. The fragmentary lines and strong pressure indicate the high impulsivity of children. 9 people out of 10 are dominated by egocentrism, the desire for leadership, demonstrativeness and openness. 3 teenagers are insecure and dependent on others. The location of zigzags along the contour and inside the cactus indicates that children are hidden and careful in their actions, this quality was found in 6 out of 10 people. Bright colors predominate in 6 drawings, this indicates the optimism of a teenager, but 4 people have anxiety (Table 1 ). All 10 drawings show one cactus, which indicates the introversion of children. Teenagers yearn for home protection and a sense of family community as they drew cacti in flower pots.
Also, the study was conducted in children with intact intelligence, from this it can be seen that 3 out of 10 people have a high level of aggressiveness, the rest have normal aggressiveness. The fragmentary lines and strong pressure indicate impulsiveness; this was found in all 10 adolescents who underwent the study. Egocentrism and the desire for leadership prevail in 8 people, 2 teenagers are insecure and dependent on others. 4 people are demonstrative and open, as in their drawing there was a large number of processes and pretentiousness of forms. The location of zigzags along the contour or inside the cactus indicates the secrecy and caution of the subjects, this was found in 6 people. 8 teenagers are optimistic, 2 people have anxiety (Table 2). Most children are introverted, as the picture shows one cactus. Teenagers are looking for the desire for home protection, a sense of family community. Two teenagers have feelings of loneliness, they lack the desire for home protection.
Thus, based on the data obtained, when comparing children studying in a correctional school and children with normal intelligence, we can say that mentally retarded adolescents with deviant behavior have a high level of aggressiveness, are impulsive, self-centered and strive for home protection and a sense of community. In children with normal intelligence, in most cases, aggressiveness is normal, but at the same time they are egocentric, strive for leadership, optimistic and introverted. Comparative characteristics can be seen from graph No. 3.
Processing and analysis of the results according to the projective method "Drawing of a person"
According to the data obtained as a result of the methodology, the description of which was given above in the relevant section, data were obtained on the individual characteristics of the personality of adolescents.
Based on the data obtained from adolescents studying in a correctional school, it can be concluded that adolescents have pronounced aggression, this can be seen from the image of the face of a drawn person, 6 people are internally tense, 4 people have a pronounced sign of aggression or verbal activity of an aggressive nature. Superficial and unemotional contacts with the outside world. Teenagers are self-centered. Feel deprived of support and protection.
Adolescents are significantly behind age norm, which is a consequence of impaired intellectual development, table 3).
For comparison, a study was also conducted among adolescents studying in a secondary school. From the survey conducted among teenagers with normal intelligence, we can say that they have an average level of aggressiveness, which is typical for a normally developing teenager. They strive to emphasize the masculinity of the male figure. Attentive to themselves, in healthy self-respect, socially adapted, successful, possess the personal energy of a person. Indecisive, afraid of responsibility, arrogant. There is a feeling of fear and anxiety. Curious, dependent, dependent, experiencing sexual problems. Sociable, actively interact with the outside world. Lack of faith in one's own strengths. Stable, confident. Heightened self-esteem. Insufficient maturity, infantilism (Table 4).
Comparative characteristics of the individual characteristics of the personality of adolescents can be seen from graph No. 4.
Processing and analysis of the results of the modified Luscher eight-color test.
According to the data obtained as a result of the methodology, the description of which was given above in the relevant section, data were obtained on the emotional components of a person’s relations with people significant to him and reflecting both the conscious and unconscious level of these relations.
Based on the data obtained from children studying in a correctional school, it can be concluded that adolescents, due to unacceptable circumstances that cause protest and negativism, sharply increase such personality traits as the need for communication, emotional involvement, change, and the search for recognition. Distrust, resentment, Difficulties in interpersonal contacts of a narrow circle, physiological needs in the comfort zone Feeling of fear, nervous exhaustion, restless irritability.
Tendency to irascibility in conflict situations. Protest against bans and unwanted restrictions. The need to control one's destiny, perseverance, resistance to circumstances, which is protective. Emotional instability. In choosing the type of activity highest value It is given to ensure that the process of activity brings pleasure. Emotional tension, the causes of which are practically not realized. Increased self-control helps to hide their vulnerability. Decreased mood background, desire for relaxation and rest. Communication difficulties. Feelings of incomprehension and loneliness. Persistent upholding of one's opinion, intransigence, categoricalness in upholding one's own independence, self-righteousness. Stress associated with the suppression of physiological needs. Difficulties in social adaptation due to increased sensitivity and pronounced individualism. The state of pronounced socio-psychological maladaptation. Rejection of the situation, protest, intransigence. Overstrain physical and mental. Restless tension. The need for liberation from oppressive circumstances, injustice. Along with a reduced background of mood and activity - emotions of anger.
For comparison, this technique was also carried out with adolescents studying in a secondary school. From the study, we can say that children at this age with intact intelligence have communication difficulties. Emotional and physical overstrain, Need for rest and help. Despite the difficulties and obstacles, the flexibility of the position contributes to the purposefulness of actions, high motivation for achievement, the need to possess life's blessings, the desire for dominance, purposefulness of actions, spontaneity and emancipation of behavior, high self-esteem, resistance to circumstances that impede the free self-realization of the individual, traits of sthenicity and masculinity, a non-trivial approach to solving problems, originality, a certain penchant for drawing, the desire to draw attention to oneself and involve those whose opinion is significant in the sphere of one's charm. The need to overcome restrictions, including the distance separating from others; striving for independence in decision-making. Lack of emotional warmth from others. The state of stress in connection with the current situation. Optimism, easy getting used to different social roles, demonstrativeness, Immediacy of feelings, addiction to fun, a game component in activities. The need to get rid of restrictions and gain the freedom to make decisions. A combination of fatigue and passivity with a pronounced sense of inner protest against the circumstances (fate), rejection of a situation that offends self-esteem and blocks the vital needs of the individual. Pessimistic assessment of the situation. Resistance to external circumstances, pressure of environmental influences. The desire to defend one's own position by limiting contacts, passive resistance. Irritability, suspiciousness in relation to the statements of others at one's own expense, stubbornness combined with touchiness. The problem of wounded pride and disturbed balance in relations with others. Restraint in the manifestation of feelings, incredulity; the unreality of claims is masked by isolation. Instability. Conscious control over spontaneous reactions creates a certain tension.
The data obtained were subjected to mathematical - static processing according to the non-parametric Mann - Whitney test.
The analysis of the obtained results, carried out on the basis of statistical processing, makes it possible to conclude that there is an obvious mismatch in the structure of the emotional sphere of children with mental retardation. So, firstly, the analysis of the results of indicators of aggressiveness allows us to conclude that these indicators of children with mental retardation are significantly higher than those of children with a norm in mental development. A high level of aggression indicates readiness for aggressive behavior, in particular, directed at oneself. The processing revealed the predominance of aggressiveness in children with mental retardation, tk. control over the affective sphere in this category of children is reduced.
Secondly, the results obtained indicate that if children with normal development have a high level of individual personality traits than adolescents with mental retardation.
Thus, if we consider the results presented in this paper as part of a systematic analysis of the characteristics of the emotional sphere of adolescents with mental retardation, then we can clearly accept the position that the lack of development of the cognitive sphere determines the mismatch of the emotional sphere of the child.
Conclusion
Symptoms of violation of the emotional sphere are also irritability, irritability, motor restlessness, restlessness. And also, there are often inadequate, disproportionate in their dynamics, the influences of the outside world, emotions and feelings. Some of them very easily, superficially react to objectively severe life situations. They are characterized by sudden changes in mood. Another category of children is prone to excessive and prolonged worries about a minor issue. Both groups are characterized by an inadequacy of the reaction to certain influences, only in children of the first group the process of excitation prevails, in children of the second - the process of inhibition. Their moral feelings are distinguished by a low degree of awareness, often exist only at the level of knowledge.
The category of mentally retarded, in addition to oligophrenics, includes children with asthenic conditions, psychopathic behavior, gross underdevelopment of the personality. They may manifest painful manifestations of feelings, states of irritable weakness, a tendency to affect, sharp outbursts of irritation. Forerunners of an approaching exacerbation of the disease that need to be paid attention to can be episodic mood disorders (dysphoria), unmotivated elevated mood (euphoria), depression (apathy).
Despite numerous studies, the psychological content of the interpretation of the emotional perception of others by mentally retarded children requires further in-depth study. This will help to organize correctional and educational work to eliminate or partially eliminate violations in the emotional perception of others, in the development of the personal sphere of a mentally retarded child, and in solving the urgent issue of social and labor adaptation to life in society.
In adolescence, one of the types of deviant behavior is aggressive behavior, often taking a hostile form (fights, insults). For some teenagers, engaging in fights, asserting oneself with the help of fists is an established line of behavior. The situation is aggravated by the instability of society, interpersonal and intergroup conflicts. The age of manifestation of aggressive actions decreases. A study of adolescent delinquents (whose object was mentally and physically healthy children) showed that the core of the conflict situation that led to the moral deformation of the personality is the shortcomings of family education, and cruelty, aggressiveness, isolation, increased anxiety - in the process of spontaneous group communication can take on a sustainable character.
Consideration of manifestation different forms aggressiveness at different stages of adolescence and from different social groups of the population gives the necessary orientation in the nature of the spheres of the personality of a child developing under the influence of various microenvironments and allows you to purposefully build an educational process.
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STUDY OF THE EMOTIONAL STATE OF A GROUP BY THE METHOD
MUTUAL COLOR EVALUATION
P.V. YANSHIN
The article is devoted to the results of our study of the applicability of the color relationship test (CRT) in the group for several years, , . According to its author, A.M. Etkind, CTO is a clinical psychodiagnostic method designed to study the emotional components of a person's relationship to significant people and reflect both the conscious and partially unconscious level of these relationships. The CTO is based on the procedure of indirect scaling of objects by comparing the color attributed to these objects with the place of this color in the preference ranking of a set of eight Luscher colors.
When developing a group version of CTO, which we conditionally called the color sociometric method (CSM), we pursued the goal of creating a technological procedure for the complex measurement of the emotional state of a group. It is known that neither clinical methods nor the procedures of socio-psychological research have the qualities of psychometric tests (, etc.), and A.M. Etkind is no exception. But, as it turned out in the course of the study, when applied in a group, CSM combines the advantages of a clinical projective method with the characteristics of a psychometric test. In particular, this becomes possible due to the transfer of the main indicators of the TEC from the scale of orders to the scales of intervals and ratios, which increases the reliability of measurements.
Emotional state is an important component of relationships in a group. In social psychology, a number of concepts are used that are close to it in meaning: "spirit of the group", "emotional unity of the group", "emotional climate of the group", "socio-psychological climate of the group", "group cohesion". At the same time, an analysis of articles in "Problems of Psychology" on socio-psychological topics over the past ten years indicates the absence of publications on the topic of the emotional state of the group itself. For the most part, researchers are interested in the level of development of the group, determined within the framework of the well-known stratometric concept of the development of the team and the principle of activity-based mediation of interpersonal relations. Emotional connections, mainly representing the emotional climate of the group, are referred in this concept to the "superficial" layer of interpersonal relations, i.e. are considered as derivatives of three more "deep". As a result, the focus of research is shifting from the actual
the well-being of people in a group to more important, from the point of view of the dynamics of the development of the team, but also more "impersonal", from the point of view of individual psychology. It is significant that the concept of "social-psychological climate" does not include the characteristics of the emotional state of the members of the group.
The study of the emotional state of the group is still relevant in the context of diagnosing the adaptation of an individual in a group, especially if his membership in it is coercive and long-term, as, for example, in a school class or an army unit. An important factor that influences the psychological climate is also the personality of a formal leader, for example, a teacher. How is the teacher emotionally perceived by the students? What is the quality and intensity of his emotional impact on the class? How attentive is he to the psychological characteristics of students and to which ones? To what extent are his likes and dislikes towards students shared by other students and by whom? These questions are designed to reveal the essential aspects of the sources and dynamics of the emotional climate of the class. At present, answering them for only one class will require a long and expensive study using a whole battery of methods that do not always fit well with each other. The listed tasks can be solved by using a unified evaluation construct during the examination: colors arranged in order of preference.
One of the classic methods for studying psychological state groups, is sociometry , , . Half a century of use of this method confirms its effectiveness, and the ease of implementation determines its popularity. But sociometry is not without a number of shortcomings. The specific procedure for conducting the CSM makes it possible to remove a number of methodological difficulties that exist in sociometry; the identity of the operationalization of the main indicators allows a) to compare the state of groups of different ages (in longitudinal studies)1; b) to minimize the dependence of the results on the interpretation of the questions or instructions asked (during an interview, in classical sociometry or the method of group personality assessment); c) protect the results from deliberate distortion; d) protect the results from the influence of language differences, cultural and educational levels of the respondents, which impede comparative intercultural research; e) weaken the psychological barriers of the respondents; f) minimize the influence of rational motivations when expressing attitudes towards a significant other.
The emotional state of the group is made up of the states of all its members, but only if the procedure for assessing the well-being of the individual organically takes into account the influence of group processes. For example, if we apply the SAN methodology or the anxiety questionnaire individually to each member of the group, and then average the results, we will not get a complete characterization of the emotional state of the group. This approach is methodologically flawed, because it does not take into account that "it is personal relationships that are one of the important factors in the emotional climate of the group, the emotional well-being of its members."
As the main theoretical construct of the study, we took the relationship. Following Ya.L. Kolominsky, we understand relationships as "a personally significant figurative, emotional and intellectual reflection of each other by people, which
represents their internal state "(italics mine. - P.Ya.). Thus, it is assumed that the emotional state of an individual member of the group and group relationships are mutually reflected, giving rise to something new, unique. A.V. Petrovsky suggested using three indicators for the group: self-esteem, expected assessment by the group and assessment by the personality of the group... There are metaphorical turns: "warm relationship", "cold relationship". This "temperature" reflects the degree of favorable emotional state of the group. Relationship in this sense of the word, it is present in a group of any level of development and, in our opinion, cannot be reduced to the well-known concepts of "group cohesion", "value-oriented unity", "level of group development", etc. What determines this "temperature" ?
Being a psychologically complex formation, the relationship organically includes an attitude towards oneself, and as an individual characteristic it acts as an attitude towards another, i.e. it is mediated by personality-sense formations: motivational and value structures, characteristics of the self-concept of the respondent and the image of the self of a significant other. Being in a group reflects these personality formations, as they are projected onto the screen of the individuals that make up this group in the form of a relation to each individual member of it and, in turn, return back in the form of a relation of all to one. The psychological core of relationships, it seems, should be not just sympathy, as is commonly believed in classical sociometric research, but satisfaction: with oneself, others, and mutual satisfaction from the group. Sympathy is only a subjective emotional reflection of the personal-meaning mediation of activity, self-awareness and interpersonal perception.
Our task, therefore, was to develop or find among those available, but not used in group research, the procedure that operationalizes the theoretical construct of relationship. This means that in the experiment, the subjects must express their attitude towards each other through a certain subjective scale, which, in turn, reflects their attitude towards themselves (I-concept) and symbolically expresses their needs, their degree of satisfaction, internal tension, etc. . The total indicator obtained in this way will reflect the "temperature" of the relationship.
CSM2 procedure. The study is currently being conducted on an individual basis. At the first stage, the respondent is asked to rank the eight colors of the Luscher test in order of decreasing preference. At the second stage, after mixing the colors, they are asked to evaluate which color of those lying in front of them is more suitable in character for this or that person from a pre-prepared list of the group. At the third stage, the respondent is again asked to rank the colors in descending order of preference. The objects of evaluation can be not only people. We use five required objects: "class teacher", "mom", "best friend", "class", "mood"; the names of other teachers and the names of various subjects are often included. The "raw" CSM protocol is a square matrix of mutual color ratings, the diagonal cells of which are filled with self-ratings, and a sub-matrix of object ratings. Teachers too
participate in the survey (i.e. color-code their students, and students rate them), which allows you to understand the degree of emotional and cognitive integration of teachers with the class. It should be emphasized that color assessment removes the ethical barrier in the student's assessment of the teacher, allowing the first to freely express his attitude. The "raw" matrix of color ratings is converted into a matrix of ranks, while using the individual rankings of colors in the second layout. This corresponds to the simplified DTT processing algorithm proposed by A.M. Etkind. The color preference matrix contains all the data needed for further analysis.
The average sum of ranks in columns (indicator "preference - rejection") and rows (indicator "goodwill, or satisfaction with the group") gives an idea of the attitude of the group to its individual member (analogous to sociometric status) and the attitude of each member to the rest of the group as an individual characteristics of the subject of assessment. Diagonal estimates reflect the attitude of each to himself, as they represent the rank of a color attributed to his own character (indicator "self-esteem, self-satisfaction"). The variance of the ratings given by the respondents characterizes the "differentiation of attitude", the variance of the ratings received by the objects - "the ambiguity of the ratings received". The correlation of the ratings given by others with the ranking of group members averaged for the whole group according to preference makes it possible to judge the degree of conformity of respondents' emotional assessments as their individual characteristic (indicator "conformity"). The correlation of ranks "assigned" by the subjects to other members of the group makes it possible to identify groupings according to the principle of coherence of cognitive attitudes and, according to the theory of Heider's balance models, may be an additional sign of mutual sympathy. In fact, each respondent gives each member of the group a score from 1 to 8, where scores above 4 reflect the degree of unattractiveness. This makes it possible to single out a group of not only "isolated", but also actually "rejected", as well as to identify the full range of relationships, since the number of assessments is not regulated. The study of coincidences of positive and negative ranks attributed to each other makes it possible to establish classical sociometric groupings on the basis of reciprocity of preference - rejection, as well as to calculate all known sociometric coefficients.
In addition to the listed indicators of group dynamics, the Luscher color test gives an idea of such individual indicators, as the degree of emotional tension, calculated as the total deviation of the order of preferred colors from the so-called autogenous norm (indicator "disharmony"), the need for rest or activity, estimated by the preference ratio cold and warm colors (indicator "need for activity - fatigue"), "emotional lability", "calculated" as the difference in the ranks of colors in the first and second layouts according to preference. The "cognitive component of the attitude" indicator is calculated as the total determination of the attitude to another object of assessment by the psychological characteristics described above (self-esteem, disharmony, goodwill, emotional lability, need for activity, need for autonomy). This indicator takes into account the influence on the formation of the subjective emotional attitude of the objective characteristics of the behavior and personality of a significant other.
As a result, we have six types of indicators characterizing the emotional state of the group and each of its members from different angles: 1) indicators of the emotional attitude towards the group and the group towards its member (results of indirect scaling); 2) indicators of cognitive attitudes in relation to group-wide trends in mutual assessment and their pairwise coincidences - discrepancies (correlations of previous indicators); 3) indicator of self-assessment of group members; 4) an indicator of the individual emotional state of each member of the group (integrated indicators of the Luscher test); 5) a color portrait of each member of the group, accessible for interpretation in terms of universal emotional meanings of colors, (the color equivalent of GOL); 6) results of object scaling. The same indicators are calculated for participating teachers. The ratios of most of the indicators can be represented in a single semantic space, which removes the problem of their comparability. These indicators can be used both to analyze the individual socio-psychological status of group members, and to compare various groups among themselves, which opens up new perspectives in the field of comparative group psychology. This also makes it possible to objectify individual problems, identify a risk group for psychological maladaptation, give sound recommendations, etc.
The method includes a specially designed computer program that automates all calculations, and the survey procedure is not tiring even for small children (the time for questioning one subject is 57 minutes). We are currently in the process of analyzing data from over 140 classrooms (a total of over 3,000 children of all age groups and their teachers).
Construct validity of the color hetero-assessment method in the group. Construct validity reflects the degree of representation of the studied psychological construct in the test results. The more the test results correspond to the theoretical hypothesis about the nature of the measured variable, the higher the construct validity of the test.
The universal "ruler", which indirectly measures the attitude of the test subject to something in the DTC, is the ranking by preference of the colors of the Luscher test. As a result, the resulting construct is interpreted as an estimated construct , . However, one should be aware that this is an operational interpretation. A meaningful interpretation of the construct requires clarification of its psychological meaning. It is obvious that constructive validation should concern not only the evaluative construct (the rank of the color attributed to the object of evaluation), but also the psychological meaning of the very ranking of colors by preference in the Luscher test.
The objective of the construct validity study was to confirm the following five hypotheses arising from the above theoretical reasoning:
1. Color preferences in the Luscher test reflect the characteristics of the self-concept (self-attitude) of the subjects.
2. Color preferences in the Luscher test reflects the "desired present model" of the subjects - as a characteristic of their need-motivational sphere.
3. The rank of the color attributed to another person reflects both the characteristics of the self-concept and the attitude towards a significant other.
4. The rank of the color attributed to another person reflects the degree of satisfaction with this person.
5. The attribution of color to oneself also reflects all of the above points, but already as aspects of self-attitude.
Four studies were conducted on independent samples of subjects (a total of 123 people aged 11 to 23 years). The details of the studies were somewhat different, but all were based on a model of parallel semantic scaling: along with the conduct of CTL, the subjects assessed themselves or a significant other according to the personal semantic differential (LSD). This method of validation was chosen by us, since the semantic differential, and LSD in particular, reflects the personal-semantic aspect of the relationship to the object, and in interpersonal evaluation it reflects semantic formations fixed in the form of a relationship.
The volume of the article allows only a brief description of the procedure and the results of the experiments. The first study (carried out by K. Andreeva) involved 39 fourth-year students of the psychological faculty of the Samara State Pedagogical University. 21-scale LSD was used to characterize the self-concept. During the study, the subjects were instructed to evaluate their current and ideal self-esteem using these scales, which subsequently made it possible to calculate the degree of their satisfaction with themselves. Before and after that, they were offered the Luscher test with standard instructions. In addition, the subjects had to indicate the color "which their character resembles". The results were processed by multiple linear regression. Separate LSD scales (actual self-esteem and the difference between ideal and actual self-esteem - self-satisfaction) were used as independent variables, and the ranks of colors of the Luscher test in the first and second layouts were used as modeled (desired, dependent) variables.
The main result was that all sixteen regression models (for the colors of the first and second layouts) made it possible to predict the ranks of their corresponding colors with 100% probability! The significance level everywhere exceeded p
Similar results were also obtained for the color rank in the second layout, which the subject attributed to himself ("What color do you resemble in character?"). It was predicted with 85% probability on the above sample of sixth-graders, and with 100% probability on the sample of students. Thus, hypotheses 1, 2 and 5 were fully confirmed: the “line” itself (color preference in the Luscher test) is determined by the personal-meaning structures of the subjects, reflects the characteristics of the self-concept and the “model of the desired present” in the form of self-satisfaction / dissatisfaction. The same is true for the rank of the first color in self-assessment.
Hypotheses 3 and 4 were tested in three experiments. The same students of the 6th year participated in the first one, to whom the "controlled projection method" V.V. was additionally applied. Stolin, modified in such a way that the subjects had to evaluate, using LSD, two artificial
characters: the one who anonymously represented the characteristics of R. Cattell3, the test subject on the 16PF test, and the one who anonymously represented his "alter Ego". In addition, the subjects ranked these characters according to the CTO. Regression models built on the basis of actual self-assessment and self-satisfaction of LSD subjects made it possible to predict with 100% probability the rank of the first color attributed to both constructed characters. Models built on the basis of LSD scaling of the "personality" of artificial characters predicted with a probability of 61 and 98% the rating rank of "one's" character and "alter Ego", respectively. This means that the color rank in hetero-evaluation integratedly reflects the attitude towards oneself and towards the "significant other" and that the attitude towards the other is more influenced by self-attitude.
The second study (L. Nikanorova) was carried out on 29 pupils of the 7th grade, who scaled their classmates (75 people in total) on the 21-scale LSD (“How he/she sees him/her at the moment, and how he/she would like to see him/her ") in parallel with the conduct of central heating according to the scheme described above. This made it possible to check how closely the rank of the first color attributed to a significant other in the second layout is closely related to the direct assessment and the degree of satisfaction with it. The multiple linear regression model, built on the basis of the current hetero-rating and satisfaction with significant others, gave a 52% prediction, which is significant at the p level.
In the latest study (S. Neplokh), conducted in six VIIIX grades, a total of 240 hetero-assessments of their classmates were obtained from 22 students on a 9-scale LSD, conducted in parallel with the CTO according to the scheme described above. The main goal of the study was to establish the semantics of Luscher's eight colors ("color portrait" 4) in a hetero-evaluation situation. The subject had to characterize each of his classmates with one of eight colors. The processing of the results consisted in dividing the set of hetero-assessments into groups according to the rank in the ranking of colors by preference that the color attributed to it by the respondents occupied in the second layout. The values of the factors Evaluation, Strength, Activity were averaged for each group. This data is graphically presented in a diagram.
The average values of the projection of objects on the axis of the factors Evaluation, Strength and Activity of the personality-semantic differential are plotted along the vertical in accordance with the color rank in the second layout of the respondents, which characterized the assessed student. For example, if classmates were rated by the color that occupied the first place in the ranking of colors by the respondents (rank in the layout = 1), their average rating by factors was: Score = 1.15, Strength = 0.6, Activity = 1.35. The diagram for the Score factor is closest to the diagonal, which indicates a close to linear relationship between the scores for this factor and the rank of the attributed color. This is confirmed by the results of the correlation analysis.
The color rank in the preference layout correlated with factors:
Score - r = 0.595, Strength - r = 0.27, Activity - r = 0.22. Despite the fact that all correlation coefficients are significant at the p level
Further, out of 22 respondents, two groups of adolescents were singled out who tend to evaluate classmates either as the first or last colors in their color rankings by preference (i.e., the former "sympathized" with others, and the latter did not). The first group included four students (average rank - 3.2 according to 44 hetero-assesses made by them), and the second - six students (average rank - 5.76 according to 63 hetero-assessments they made). Checking the differences in the average hetero-estimates made by the students of both groups gave significant results according to the Student's t-test only for the Evaluation factor (at the level of p
Thus, hypotheses 3 and 4 were fully confirmed. Together with them, the construct validity of the mutual color evaluation procedure in the group was also confirmed. The color sociometric status, therefore, reflects the overall satisfaction with this member of the group, and the sum of all mutual assessments reflects satisfaction with each other, the level of mutual sympathy and, thus, the emotional state of the group as a whole. Conclusion: the CSM procedure precisely operationalizes the theoretical construct "relationship".
competitive validity. Competitive validity is determined by the correlation of our test results with the data,
derived from other tests designed to measure the same variable . It was tested in two studies of the relationship between the indicators of the color sociometric method and: 1) the results of classical sociometry and 2) the data of R. Cattell's 16-factor questionnaire.
Table 1
Correlation of CSM indicators with R. Cattell's 16-factor questionnaire
The first study (M.L. Merkulova) involved 80 students: one in the VI and two in the VII grades, an average of 26 people in each. Three sociometric criteria were used: "invite to a birthday" (recreational), "study in the same class" (leading activity) and "choose a team for a quiz" (competence). Sociometric status, calculated as the sum of all three criteria for each student, correlated with the coefficient "preference - rejection" in the CSM at the p level
The second study (I.A. Nikishina) involved 154 students from six grades X and XI of two secondary schools. The procedure consisted of a parallel examination using the CSM and a 16-factor personality questionnaire by R. Cattell. The results were processed using Ch. Spearman's rank correlation method (Table 1).
All correlation indicators are significant at a level of at least p
Thus, we can also talk about the good competitive validity of the color sociometric method. In addition, it can be considered as a differential psychological method, since its indicators are correlated not only with socio-psychological, but also with individual psychological characteristics of group members.
CSM reliability. Reliability was defined as the stability of indicators over time during retesting a month after the first study (the first measurement was carried out in the first quarter, the second - in the second). The study (E.M. Mikulitskaya) involved five classes: I, II, V, VIII and XI (a total of 129 people), which was supposed to reflect all age parallels of the secondary school. The data of all classes were combined into a single matrix and processed as a single array. The results of the rank correlation between the results of the first and second testing are given in Table. 2.
table 2
Data on retest reliability and main indicators of CSM
In the literature, one can find various requirements for the retest study interval: from two weeks to six months. The monthly interval, in our opinion, is a compromise period, taking into account the dynamism of the measured indicators. It is sufficient, on the one hand, to assess the reliability of the measurement, on the other hand, to assess the stability of the object of study itself (the emotional state of the group). Since the DTT procedure practically eliminates the effect of remembering previous answers, the interval between measurements should not greatly affect the increase in the reliability factor. It should also be taken into account that all indicators were obtained as a result of the same measurement procedure with different algorithms for processing the original matrix. Therefore, the maximum level of correlation should characterize the available measurement accuracy, and the differences in correlations for other indicators should characterize the variability in time of the measurements they measure. psychological characteristics, i.e. their predictive validity.
In the literature on psychodiagnostics (, , etc.), the value of the reliability coefficient for psychometric tests is 0.70.8, the excess of which is practically rare. In our case (see Table 2), the value of 0.7 is higher than the reliability coefficients of three CTO indicators: "preference - rejection" (0.82), "disharmony" (0.73) and "need for activity" (0.73 ). The first is the main indicator of the methodology, the construct validity and psychological content of which was discussed in detail above; the other two are the integral indicators of the Luscher test, reflecting the individual characteristics of the group members. This result, combined with the data on validity, makes it possible to classify the DTC as a proper test procedure, since it characterizes a very low standard error of measuring the entire procedure as a whole. The stability of these indicators also allows us to speak of a high
predictive validity of the CSM, as well as the stability of the color sociometric status and the data of the Luscher color test. Since this is the result of processing the combined data of all school classes, the value of the coefficients indicates the high validity of the CSM, regardless of the age of the subjects, the semantic stability of the psychological construct in relation to the subjects aged 67 to 1617 years, i.e. on the applicability of the test for longitudinal and cross-sectional studies within these age limits.
Acquaintance with the data on the standardization of the CSM is not included in the task of this article and will be appropriate in parallel with the presentation of psychological patterns and age-related trends in the change in indicators, which is a separate topic for consideration.
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Received October 27, 1998
1 A similar technique is used in .
2 The procedure is described in relation to the school class, but can be easily modified for any group.
3 In all studies, a version of the questionnaire was used in the adaptation of the Institute. V.M. Bekhterev.
4 Not discussed in this article.
5 The same correlation coefficient was obtained for a separate scale "charming - unattractive" LSD.
